Commercial Launch Services Research Articles

Government Policy or Market Mechanism, Which Is Better for Chinese Private Rocket Enterprises

In 2015, Chinese Government issued the<i> Notice on the National Civil Space Infrastructure Medium - and Long-Term Development Plan (2015-2025)</i>, announcing that it would support and guide social capitals to participate in the application and development of national civil space infrastructure construction. Later, Chinese private companies are allowed to apply for launch licenses, breaking the traditional model of allocating funds from the state budget and developing rockets only by the "national teams". Many Chinese private rocket companies were registered and established afterwards, and some of them have successfully launched rockets several times in recent years. At the same time, Chinese private rocket enterprises are also facing with many problems, including the low success rate of rockets, the risk of rocket debris falling, high space insurance rates, space junk, talent competition, and corporate survival, etc. In 2023, the Chinese Government issued <i>Notice on Strengthening the License Management for Civil Space Launch Projects</i>, which requires the third-party liability insurance policy and space debris mitigation plan for launch licenses application, meanwhile the last sub-stage of the launch vehicle should de-orbit according to the regulations after taking measures such as passivation, using government policy tools to regulate and guide the development of private rockets. In conclusion, in order to promote the healthy development of commercial launch service industry, the market mechanism should play a leading role, while appropriately regulation and adjustment from the government policy are also needed. In addition, this paper also suggested that the Chinese government should carry out overall planning for the division of labor and product models of state-owned and private rocket companies.

Satellite Launch and Production Services and Arbitration in the Chinese Private Sector

China has grown to become one of the largest producers and launchers of rockets and satellites in recent years. Both Chinese private companies and state-owned enterprises (SOEs) are in this sector, and there are reports of satellite launch and sale contracts being signed between Chinese and foreign parties. Over the past decade, South Korea, India, the United States, France and other countries have had experience with very large arbitration claims being made arising from satellite contracts. Chinese companies have not yet had such arbitrations, but they may in the future. What likely issues might such arbitrations involve? This article examines. Arbitration, commercial space contracts, satellites, launch services, production services, China, Belt and Road

Small-Satellite Synthetic Aperture Radar for Continuous Global Biospheric Monitoring: A Review

Space-based radar sensors have transformed Earth observation since their first use by Seasat in 1978. Radar instruments are less affected by daylight or weather conditions than optical counterparts, suitable for continually monitoring the global biosphere. The current trends in synthetic aperture radar (SAR) platform design are distinct from traditional approaches in that miniaturized satellites carrying SAR are launched in multiples to form a SAR constellation. A systems engineering perspective is presented in this paper to track the transitioning of space-based SAR platforms from large satellites to small satellites. Technological advances therein are analyzed in terms of subsystem components, standalone satellites, and satellite constellations. The availability of commercial satellite constellations, ground stations, and launch services together enable real-time SAR observations with unprecedented details, which will help reveal the global biomass and their changes owing to anthropogenic drivers. The possible roles of small satellites in global biospheric monitoring and the subsequent research areas are also discussed.

Cost estimating of commercial smallsat launch vehicles

Commercial launch service providers’ low-priced offerings have been a hotly debated topic. However, the strategies with which these firms reduce costs have seen little incorporation into the hardware Cost Estimating Methods (CEMs) and tools prevalent in the aerospace industry. This research changes this, by providing adaptations to agency-focused CEMs that befit a new commercial paradigm, with an emphasis on smallsat launch vehicles.A parametric model for estimating costs in an early phase of development was synthesized, with which it is possible to approximate the full life-cycle costs of small commercial liquid and solid propellant rockets, as well as their cost-based price per flight. Key elements included were reductions in cost achieved by commercial launch operators, by modeling reduced subcontractor management effort and profit retention experienced at lower subcontracting rates.Prices per flight of small commercial launch vehicles were approximated by combining a parametric cost estimating methodology used frequently in the context of space agencies such as ESA and NASA, called the T1 Equivalents method, with another parametric three-part estimate developed by Koelle for development, manufacture and operations phase costs. The first two phases were estimated through the T1 method, while the operations costs were modeled with TRANSCOST.Along with the newly developed methodologies, novel insights such as required launch rates have shone a light on small commercial launch systems’ cost feasibility in the age of public-private spaceflight partnerships.The model developed was able to approximate costs of development, manufacture and price per flight of three commercial rockets to within 20% of actual reported costs or prices. However, it is recommended the model is refined as more reference cost data, especially on a subsystem level, as well as pricing for these smaller rockets becomes available in the coming years.

An inconvenient regulatory truth: Divergence in US and EU satellite export control policies on China

Since the early 1990s the USA has maintained export control sanctions against Chinese international commercial satellite launch services. In 1998 these sanctions were further strengthened, resulting in a de facto international embargo that is premised on ITAR export licenses. Since 1998 this de facto embargo has effectively prohibited China from launching Western commercial satellites of a sophisticated technological standard. Today, European commercial satellite manufacturers are positioned to fully benefit from ITAR-free technology investments, gaining access to Chinese launch services for the launch of commercial telecommunication satellites that are technologically comparable to US satellites. This article examines the policy implications for the USA in light of EU regulatory divergence and the impending return of China to the international commercial launch services market.

TRANSCOST를 이용한 한국형발사체의 생산 및 운용 비용 추정

우주발사체 개발은 우주 선진국으로 도약하기 위해 반드시 필요한 중요한 사업이며 막대한 비용과 장기간의 개발기간이 소요되는 만큼 위험이 존재한다. 성공적이고 효율적인 우주발사체 개발을 위해서는 적절한 개발 비용 산정이 중요하다. 또한, 우주발사체를 상업용 발사체로 활용하기 위해서는 다른 우주발사체와의 경쟁력 비교를 위해 생산 및 운용 비용의 추정도 필요하다. 본 논문에서는 한국에서 개발되는 우주발사체의 생산 및 운용 비용을 추정할 수 있도록 한국의 인력 및 기술 수준, 평균 작업시간 등과 같은 요소를 반영할 수 있는 한국화요소에 대해 분석하였다. 또한, 한국화요소를 적용하여 KSLV-II의 생산 및 운용 비용을 추정해보고 해외 발사체의 발사 비용과 비교를 통해 발사체 서비스 시장에서 상업용 발사체로서 경쟁력을 평가하였다. The development of space launch vehicle is an important step to advance to developed countries in the space area. It is also so risky due to necessity of huge costs and longer development period. The accuracy of cost estimation is important to develop a space launch vehicle successfully and efficiently. It is also necessary to estimate production and operation cost in order to develop commercial space launch vehicle possessing competitiveness. In this paper, Korean factors to be able to reflect the current state of workforce, average working hours and technology readiness level in Korea were analyzed to estimate production and operation cost of space launch vehicles that are developed in Korea. Korean factors have been applied to production and operation cost estimation of KSLV-II based on TRANSCOST. We evaluated the competitiveness level of KSLV-II as the commercial launch vehicle in the commercial launch services market by comparing with cost per flight of foreign launch vehicles.

An Inconvenient Regulatory Truth: U.S.-E.U. Commercial Satellite Export Control Regulatory Policy Divergence & the Return of China to the International Commercial Launch Services Market

Since 1998 the United States has maintained a de jure domestic and a de facto international boycott against Chinese international commercial launch services. The de facto international boycott is premised on ITAR export licenses that create a de jure link on the basis of U.S. origin technology. Since 1998 this boycott has effectively prohibited China from launching Western commercial satellites of a sophisticated technological standard. Today, European commercial satellite manufacturers are positioned to fully benefit from ITAR-free technology investments, gaining access to Chinese launch services for the launch of technologically comparable commercial telecommunication satellites. Eutelsat is scheduled in mid-2011 to launch their first major communication satellite with China since the boycott began. This article examines the policy implications for the United States in light of E.U. regulatory divergence and the impending return of China to the international commercial launch services market.

Convergence of Civil Law and Common Law Contracts in the Space Field

This article explores the evolution of civil law and common law towards convergence, briefly addressing the history of the theoretical and philosophical perspectives that contributed to shape evolution and change within these two systems. The article analyses general features of the central aspects of contract theory in civil law and common law jurisdictions. As an example of convergence in the commercial contract realm, the article focuses on the analysis of the structure, characteristics and main clauses of the commercial space launch services agreements in both systems, stressing their similarities in structure, treatment and consequences.

Overview of GX launch services by GALEX

Galaxy Express Corporation (GALEX) is a launch service company in Japan to develop a medium size rocket, GX rocket and to provide commercial launch services for medium/small low Earth orbit (LEO) and Sun synchronous orbit (SSO) payloads with a future potential for small geo-stationary transfer orbit (GTO). It is GALEX's view that small/medium LEO/SSO payloads compose of medium scaled but stable launch market due to the nature of the missions. GX rocket is a two-stage rocket of well flight proven liquid oxygen (LOX)/kerosene booster and LOX/liquid natural gas (LNG) upper stage. This LOX/LNG propulsion under development by Japan's Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA), is robust with comparable performance as other propulsions and have future potential for wider application such as exploration programs. GX rocket is being developed through a joint work between the industries and GX rocket is applying a business oriented approach in order to realize competitive launch services for which well flight proven hardware and necessary new technology are to be introduced as much as possible. It is GALEX's goal to offer “Easy Access to Space”, a highly reliable and user-friendly launch services with a competitive price. GX commercial launch will start in Japanese fiscal year (JFY) 2007–2008.

The New Aerospace Diplomacy: Reconstructing Post-Cold War US-Russian Economic Relations

Post-Cold War U.S.-Russian diplomacy reveals the increased importance of new diplomatic actors and processes, whilst underscoring the continued key role of state-state negotiation in reconstructing the bilateral relationship between the United States and post-Soviet Russia. The Clinton administration and Yeltsin government negotiated measures to promote political stability, democratization, and conversion to a neoliberal market economy in Russia, a centrepiece of which was the integration of Russia’s globally competitive aerospace sector into the global production chain. Establishing the Gore-Chernomyrdin Commission, a top-level binational economic and technology policy committee, and signing a bilateral trade liberalization treaty on commercial satellite launch services paved the way for public-public and public-private bilateral space cooperation, and for major private joint ventures between US and Russian aerospace firms.

Commercial Space Launch Services Contracts in France and the United States of America

The article focuses on the characteristics, structures, and main clauses of the commercial space launch contracts as used in France and the United States, stressing their similarities in structure, legal treatment, and consequences.

A view of the commercial launch services market

The commercial launch market is as dynamic and evolutive as ever. Following a period of relatively steady growth, we have, however, witnessed a rather more turbulent phase in the past two years. This is partly due to the various economic and financial crises experienced in 1998 and partly to a significant increase in the number of in-orbit and on-ground problems experienced by satellite manufacturers and operators. What is the Arianespace's view of the current market and of the short and medium-term trends?

Orbital launch systems

This paper provides an update on Orbital's space launch systems and the innovative approaches taken to provide reliable and cost effective launch services to meet the operational requirements of today's small spacecraft. Current operational systems addressed include the Pegasus® XL and Taurus® launch vehicles along with recent new developments for access to space. Specific topics to be presented include the following: • /bb General description and unique capability of each launch vehicle • /bb Payload accommodations and launch site capabilities • /bb Multiple spacecraft launch accommodations for greater utility and cost efficiency • /bb Flight experience and results to date • /bb Launch System Group organization and expertise As an experienced provider of commercial launch services Orbitals launch systems have lead the way in serving the small satellite community. Our experience and proven performance record enables us to continue serving our customers into the next millennium with reliable and cost effective launch opportunities.

The commercial challenge to Arianespace: the TCI affair

The question of how far rockets used for commercial launch services are subsidised by their respective governments remains highly topical. This article traces the history of the first legal challenge to be made on this basis by a US launch service provider against Arianespace, a case which also called into question the pricing of the Space Shuttle. The perceptions, deliberations and negotiations of both sides are traced and it is noted that their most important outcome was not settlement of the case itself but agreement to start serious consultations on defining ‘rules of the road’ regarding government support to the commercial launch industry.

US government policy — the major factor shaping the international commercial space launch marketplace

In this Viewpoint — an edited version of a statement made to the US House Committee on Science's Subcommittee on Space and Aeronautics' hearing on ‘US launch strategy’ — the President of Arianespace, Inc analyses the overriding importance of US government policies and executive decisions on the shaping and behavior of the international market in commercial space launch services. Chief among these is the overruling of commercial imperatives by foreign policy and national security interests and the consequent regular intervention of the US government in launch decisions. The ability of Arianespace successfully to compete in a market severely distorted as a result of these interventions, including the encouragement of joint ventures between US and Russian or Ukrainian companies, is explained.

This is Commercial Titan Inc.

Out of a quarter-century heritage of eminently successful expendable launch vehicle history with the U.S. government, a commercial launch services enterprise which challenges the corporation as well as the competition has been launched within the Martin Marietta Corporation. This paper is an inside look at the philosophy, structure, and success of the new subsidiary, Commercial Titan Inc., which is taking on its U.S. and foreign rocket-making competitors to win a share of the international communication satellite market as well as the U.S. government commercial launch services market.

Chinese launch services A user's guide

This article describes aspects of the Chinese space programme of interest to potential users of Chinese commercial launch services. A brief history is included along with a review of the current licensing requirements of the US government. The rationale behind Aussat's choice of the Long March launch vehicle is presented as well as a brief comment on the likely future for Chinese launch services in the West.

The USSR's prudent space policy

Soviet space policy has long been viewed in the West as militaristic and aimed at achieving superiority, a situation which is abetted by the secrecy in which Soviet space activities are shrouded. This article argues, however, that Soviet space policy is essentially prudent and conservative, and based on exploiting existing technology to the maximum. Whilst it has provided the USSR with an impressive space potential, it does not mean that the USSR is ahead of the USA in space. Nevertheless, in the future the USSR is likely to undertake more international cooperation and offer commercial launch services.