Commercial Feather Meal Research Articles

A Two-step Biotechnological Process for Improving Nutrition Value of Feather Meal by Bacillus licheniformis S6

A two-step biotechnological process was developed using Bacillus licheniformis S6 to provide a simple and economical procedure which significantly improved feather meal nutrition value. Compared with IFM (initial feather meal) and CFM (commercial feather meal), SFEFM (feather meal gained by solid fermentation and enzymolysis with continuous agitation) had a significant improvement (P<0.05) in vitro digestibility, contents of oligopeptides and soluble protein released in digestive juice by pepsin-pancreatin digestion procedure, furthermore, some deficient essential amino acids in feather protein (histidine, methionine, lysine) were enhanced. Comapared with CFM, the oligopeptides released into digestive juice of ISFM (feather meal obtained by the biotechnological process described in the paper with intermittent shaking) was significantly enhanced (P<0.05), and its in vitro digestibility was statistically (P>0.05) equivalent to CFM. The summary of the finding to IFM treatment and possible means of further improvements were also listed.

A Green Process for Producing Biodiesel from Feather Meal

This paper describes a new and environmentally friendly process for developing biodiesel from commercial feather meal, a waste product of the poultry industry. Currently, feather meal is used as an animal feed, given its high protein content, and also as a fertilizer because of its high nitrogen content. In this work, we have extracted fat from the feather meal in boiling water (70 degrees C) and then transesterified the fat into biodiesel using KOH and methanol; 7-11% biodiesel (on a dry basis) is produced in this process. ASTM analysis of the prepared feather meal biodiesel confirmed that the biodiesel is of good quality and comparable to other biodiesels made from other common feedstocks. Given the amount of feather meal produced by the poultry industry, it is estimated that this process can create 150-200 million gallons of biodiesel in the United States and 593.2 million gallons worldwide.

A biotechnological process for treatment and recycling poultry feathers as a feed ingredient

A strain of Kocuria rosea with keratinolytic capacity was cultured aerobically on submerged feathers to obtain a fermented feather meal (FFM). This FFM enriched with cells of K. rosea mainly contains crude protein (71%). The pepsin digestibility of the fermented product (88%) was similar to the value of the commercial feather meal and more than 70% greater that untreated feathers. The bacterial biomass improved the content of amino acids lysine (3.46%), histidine (0.94%) and methionine (0.69%). Additionally, the amino acid availability tested by in vivo assay was greater than commercial feather meal. The microbial cells also supplied carotenoid pigments to FFM (68 ppm). These results suggest that feather meal enriched with K. rosea may be useful in animal feeding as protein and pigment source.

The effect of enzyme predigestion on the nutritional quality of prepressed turkey feather meal

Three experiments were conducted to determine the protein efficiency ratio (PER), pepsin digestibility, TMEn, and true amino acid availability (TAAA) of prepressed turkey feather meal (PFM), enzyme-digested PFM (EPFM), and commercial feather meal (CFM). Turkey feathers from a commercial processing plant were mechanically pressed alone or mechanically pressed, followed by treatment with a mixture of protease, lipase, and amylase prior to autoclaving. In the first study, feather meal diets containing 16,20, or 24% CP from PFM, EPFM, or CFM were fed to starter poults for 10 d. All diets resulted in negative or negligible growth. In a second study, PFM, EPFM, and CFM were again the primary sources of CP, but dietary protein levels were increased to 20, 24, and 28% CP, and all diets contained 20% corn and 10% soybean meal (PFMCS, EPFMCS, CFMCS), respectively, to allow for a basal level of growth. Performance and PER of the poults fed the diets with PFMCS, EPFMCS, and CFMCS were similar. The efficiency of use of the PFMCS diet was numerically lower (P < or = 0.1) when compared with the EPFMCS and CFMCS diets. Similarly, pepsin digestibilities of EPFM and CFM were higher than PFM. The TAAA of PFM (82.1%) and EPFM (80.6%) were not significantly higher than that of CFM (71.4%); however, the availabilities of lysine, threonine, aspartate, glutamate, proline, and histidine were significantly higher. Digestion of pressed turkey feathers with an enzyme mixture prior to autoclaving could have a positive impact on its protein and amino acid nutritional values.

Effect of pressure processing on amino acid digestibility of meat and bone meal for poultry

In the future, it may become desirable or required to process meat and bone meal (MBM) under pressure to reduce human health concerns associated with bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE). Therefore, three experiments evaluated the effects of different processing pressures on the digestibility of amino acids (AA) in MBM when the pressure processing was done after typical rendering (Experiments 1 and 2) or during the initial rendering process of raw materials (Experiment 3). Processing pressures varied from 0 to 60 psi in experimental or commercial feather meal cookers. Increasing pressure during processing reduced MBM Cys concentrations in Experiments 1 and 2. True digestibilities of most AA were significantly decreased by increasing pressures in Experiments 1 and 2, and reductions were generally largest for Cys and Lys, particularly Cys, and increased with severity as pressure increased. For example, in Experiment 1, Cys digestibility decreased from 65 to 50 to 15%, and Lys digestibility decreased from 76 to 68 to 41% as the MBM was processed at 0, 30, and 60 psi, respectively, for 20 min. When the pressure processing occurred during the initial rendering of the MBM raw material (Experiment 3), a significant reduction in digestibility of most AA was observed only at 60 psi, and the decrease was much less than that observed in Experiments 1 and 2. Our results indicate that pressure processing of MBM decreases the digestibility of AA for poultry. Thus, pressure processing of MBM to reduce potential BSE infectivity will likely decrease the nutritional value of the MBM.

Increasing nutrient availability of feather meal for ruminants and non-ruminants using an ammonia pressurisation/depressurisation process

An ammonia pressurisation/depressurisation process (PDA) was evaluated for efficacy in enhancing solubility and digestibility of feather meal (FM) protein. Commercial FM was processed for 5 min with variable ammonia loadings (0.5–2 g g−1 DM), moisture contents (10–50%) and temperatures (75–90 °C). Dry matter and protein solubility were determined in a 0.15 M NaCl solution (6 h, 39 °C) and soluble protein content was determined by the Lowry method. Ruminal solubility was determined by the Kjeldahl method as protein lost in the rumen (1 min) of a cannulated steer. Protein digestibility (crude protein by Kjeldahl analysis) was determined using the in situ dacron bag and pepsin techniques. Protein solubility in the untreated FM was low (13.3 and 7.2%, in NaCl and in rumen fluid, respectively) and increased (p < 0.05) to 39.4 and 23.0%, respectively, in the treated FM at the optimal conditions (50% moisture, 2 g ammonia g−1 dry FM and 90 °C). Ruminal and pepsin protein digestibilities increased (p < 0.05) with increasing moisture content, ammonia loading and temperature. Protein digested in the rumen at 12 h increased from 21.9 (untreated) to 43.0%. Highest digestibility value at 48 h was 54.8%. Pepsin protein digestibility increased (p < 0.05) from 35.4% in the untreated FM to 89.3% in the optimal treatment. Protein solubility in NaCl correlated very well (0.98) with pepsin digestibility. The 3-fold increase in solubility and 2-fold increase in digestibility could improve nutrient availability of FM and increase its value as a protein source for both ruminants and non-ruminants. © 1999 Society of Chemical Industry

Extrusion Processing Used to Convert Dead Poultry, Feathers, Eggshells, Hatchery Waste, and Mechanically Deboned Residue into Feedstuffs for Poultry

In Experiments 1 and 2, dead broilers (3 and 5 wk old) and dead turkeys (6 and 12 wk old), and broiler feathers were obtained from commercial sources and evaluated for nutritional contribution when co-extruded with soybean meal (48% CP). Samples of each age of dead birds and two feather treatments, with and without 5.13% proteolytic enzyme premix (INSTA-PRO®), were blended with soybean meal in an 25:75 ratio (wt/wt, wet basis) and processed through an INSTA-PRO® extruder. The resulting six extruded products were used in formulating isocaloric and isonitrogenous diets and were compared with a diet containing corn-soybean meal or corn-soybean meal with commercial feather meal when fed to broilers from 1 to 21 days of age. In Experiment 1, feeding diets containing dead broilers supported higher (P ≤ .05) body weight than those receiving the corn-soybean meal control diet. There was no difference (P > .05) in feed conversion. Enzyme treatment of the feathers improved growth rate but not feed conversion over the untreated feather diet in Experiment 1. In Experiment 2, dead poultry and enzyme-treated feather extruded products were good feed ingredients for broilers with feed efficiency and growth responses comparable to the corn-soybean meal control diet.In Experiments 3 and 4, centrifuged eggshells from egg-breaking plants (Source A or B), centrifuged hatchery solid (Source C or D), centrifuged hatchery solid plus liquid (Source C or D), and mechanically deboned turkey frame residue were each blended with ground corn to produce mixtures with 15 to 25% moisture and processed through an INSTA-PRO® extruder. Two experiments involving 480 Hy-Line® 36 laying hens were conducted for three 28-day periods to evaluate hen performance and egg quality when the extruded products were incorporated into the diet. No differences were found (P < .05) in egg production, egg weight, feed conversion, and egg specific gravity for all diets.The microbiological test (total aerobic count) indicated that the pre-extrusion blended mixtures had significant numbers of colony-forming units per gram of sample. The extruded products that exited from the extruder barrel were free of aerobic microorganisms. The results of these studies indicated that high temperature-short time extrusion is an alternative method for converting these poultry industry residues into feedstuffs.

Protein and Amino Acid Quality of Feather Meals

Experiments were conducted to evaluate protein quality and TMEn of seven commercial feather meal (FM) samples by various in vivo and in vitro methods. True digestibilities of amino acids (AA) were determined with a 48-h excreta collection assay using conventional (CONV) and cecectomized (CEC) cockerels. Bioavailabilities of Lys and TSAA were estimated by chick growth assays using purified crystalline AA diets. Protein efficiency ration (PER; grams of gain:grams of CP consumed) was determined by feeding chick diets containing 9% CP supplied solely by a FM. The FM samples averaged (range) 81.0% (76 to 87) CP, 1.82% (1.46 to 2.15) Lys, 4.79% (4.07 to 5.30) Cys, .52% (.45 to .61%) Met, and 1.20% (.93 to 1.66) lanthionine. The PER values averaged .97 (.80 to 1.22). Pepsin N digestibility values determined with .2% pepsin ranged from 70 to 81%, whereas those determined with .002% pepsin ranged from 17 to 49%. True digestibilities of several AA were lower for CEC than for CONV birds. Chick Lys bioavailability values were much lower than the corresponding digestible Lys values for most FM, varied greatly among individual FM samples, and also varied markedly depending on method of calculation. The chick growth assays yielded imprecise estimates of bioavailability of Lys and Met in FM.Correlation analyses indicated that lanthionine concentration was negatively correlated with most in vitro and in vivo assay values. The .002% pepsin digestibility values were more highly correlated with in vivo assay values than were the .2% pepsin ones. Digestible Lys and Cys values for CEC and CONV birds were highly correlated with one another and were also highly correlated with bioavailable Lys and TSAA values, respectively. Mean TMEn was 3.471 kcal/g of DM (2.804 to 3.931) for CEC cockerels and 3.799 kcal/g of DM (3.263 to 4.381) for CONV cockerels, and me values were highly correlated (r = .95).

Evaluation of a Bacterial Feather Fermentation Product, Feather-Lysate, as a Feed Protein

Feeding trials were designed to evaluate the nutritive value of feathers treated by a feather-degrading bacterium, Bacillus licheniformis (Strain PWD-1). An initial experiment compared feathers that had been treated under aerobic or anaerobic conditions with untreated feathers as 25% of the feed protein in the diet. The test diets were fed to growing broiler chicks from Day 6 through Day 21 posthatch. The anaerobically fermented product, feather-lysate, resulted in improved growth responses of 6.9 and 19.3% over the aerobic- and nonbacterial-treated feather feed products, respectively, but 6.4% less than a standard com-soybean-based diet In a subsequent experiment, 3 or 6% of feather-lysate, untreated feathers, and commercial feather meal were fed to chicks on a basal diet containing only 10% protein. The linear growth response slopes were compared with the slope resulting when chicks were fed diets containing soybean protein in graded levels from 10 to 19% of the total feed. Feather-lysate supplemented with lysine, methionine, and histidine produced a growth curve identical to that of soybean meal. Commercial feather meal supported an improved growth rate over the untreated feathers but significantly less than feather-lysate. These results indicate that the anaerobic fermentation of feathers offers a potential new process for feather waste treatment to provide a nutritious feed protein.

Feather and Hair Meals for Ruminants. II. Comparative Evaluation of Feather and Hair Meals as Protein Supplements

In vitro and in vivo digestion trials and a feedlot performance trial were conducted to compare cottonseed meal (CSM) with feather meal (FM) and hair meal (HM) as protein supplements for ruminants. In vitro rumen studies compared diets with roughage to concentrate ratios (R:C) ranging from 0:100 to 100:0 with similar diets unsupplemented or supplemented with commercial FM, special FM, commercial FM plus urea or commercial HM. Dry matter digestion was in the order of commercial HM > special FM = commercial FM plus urea > commercial FM > control. All protein supplements were utilized to a greater extent at the lower R:C ratios. Ammonia-N concentration suggested FM and HM proteins might not be readily soluble in the rumen. The in vivo digestion trial and performance trial (30 wether and 30 ewe lambs) compared a negative control diet with no added protein with similar diets in which CSM, commercial FM, commercial HM and three differently hydrolyzed turkey feather meals (HTF-A, -B and -C) supplied 50% of the total N in respective diets. Only the wether lambs were slaughtered at the end of the performance trial for evaluation of carcass traits. Protein utilization (digestibility and N retention) ranged in the order: commercial FM > CSM = HM > basal. Data from the performance trial showed that the final weights, live and carcass average daily gains and dressing percentages were higher and feed conversion (kg feed/kg gain) was lower for animals fed HM and HTF-C (hydrolyzed at 3.16 kg/cm2 for 90 min; pepsin digestibility, 78%) diets than for those fed other diets. Feed consumption also favored the HM diet. Costs of gains were lower for the FM and HM diets than for the CSM diet. The study demonstrated that FM and HM (when properly processed) were superior to CSM (per unit of N basis) when fed as the only protein supplement in diets for ruminants.

Degradation of feather keratin by culture filtrates of Streptomyces fradiae

Treatment of milled defatted capon feathers with filtrates of Steptomyces fradiae ATCC 10745 that had been concentrated 20 times showed that the most keratin degradation in 0.5h occurred at pH 8.0 and 60degrees C. If assay time was extended, however, adecrease in reaction rate occurred and appeared to result from keratinase instability at elevated temperatures. Exposure of commercial feather meal to unconcentrated culturefiltrates for 15 h produced greatest degradation at 50 degrees C.

Enzymic Digestion of Feather Keratin and its Derivatives

Native chicken feather keratin, commercial feather meal and soluble feather keratin derivatives (keratose, keratein and carboxymethyl feather keratin) were digested by several proteases (pronase, protin, papain and pancreatin) and the digestibility was compared. The digestibility of native feather keratin and commercial feather meal was 20 and 50~70% respectively with all proteases tested. Pronase and pancreatin were more effective in digesting the soluble feather keratin derivatives than the others. However, the different reaction patterns were observed on these two enzymes. Pronase’s action reached the equilibrium quickly but pancreatine’s action was gradual to attain the equilibrium.