Commercial Adventure Tourism Research Articles

Novice tourists’ play experience in commercial outdoor adventure tourism: The perspective of reversal theory

Soft, commercial outdoor adventure tourism allows mass novice tourists to play through artificial interventions that manufacture risk and keep safeguards. From the perspective of reversal theory, this paper explores how to balance novice adventure tourists' risk perception and protective frame through designs of play forms to reach the optimal playful state. This question is investigated through a case of Chinese tourists' ziplining experiences in Thailand. Through observation and interviews, we find that novice tourists experience risky arousals through their interactive play with the ziplining-themed material environment. The interspersing interpersonal play moderates their interaction with the adventure facilities and helps them foster the protective frame to enjoy the risky arousals as fun. Tourists alternatively experience these two forms of play, and achieve an optimal playful ziplining experience once the protective frame matches their perceived risk. Our study enriches the study of play in tourism by revealing the mechanism of tourists’ play experience in novice commercial adventure tourism. It also broadens the managerial and theoretical perspective of outdoor adventure tourism by proposing a triangle radar model of adventure tourism products. ● Outdoor adventure tourism managers could design, evaluate and classify adventure tourism products based on the triangle radar model with interpersonal-, facility-, and competency-dominated dimensions proposed in this paper. ● The combination of interpersonal and facility dimensions could be considered in the design of soft commercial adventure tourism activities as their interplay satisfies novice tourists to taste a risky experience playfully in nature. ● Adventure facilities with multiple participations and certain flexible play rules, staff with hardcore and soft interactive skills are two necessary conditions to construct interpersonal play in adventure tourism. ● Play provides managers with an alternative way to connect tourists with nature.

Business Practices to Minimize Safety Risks: A Case Study of Two Adventure Tourism Businesses in Malaysia

Risk is inherent in adventure tourism. Without risk, adventure tourism will lose their excitement and uniqueness. Managing risk in commercial adventure tourism operation is essential for the safety of travelers. The improper risk management in this business may lead to some issues such as injury and accidents. Risks involved in adventure tourism are frequently highlighted by the media, usually after a reported accident of fatality. The increased in the number of reported accidents by media in the adventure tourism sector recently, may give significant effect and harmful impact on business as well as the whole tourism industry. Thus, it is important for the commercial adventure tourism businesses and company providers to have effective tools and model(s) in managing the risk effectively to avoid any circumstances that lead to accidents in order for the business to run smoothly with high reputation and confidence of customers. This study explores whether or not Malaysian adventure tourism businesses adhere to any risk management guidelines or models. Two preliminary case studies of adventure tourism businesses in Malaysia illustrated that these businesses have no specific guidelines and risk management models that adventure tourism businesses should adhere to. In addition, findings from this study also demonstrated that no specific regulations imposed by the government for adventure tourism businesses to comply to. This study advises on the application and implementation of the Event Management Body of Knowledge (EMBOK) model as part of Malaysian adventure tourism businesses risk management responsibilities.

A profile of commercial adventure tourism participants in South Africa

Once a small, niche, and relatively exclusive, adventure tourism has now become accessible to the masses. Although much research exists on the extent and nature of changes to the industry itself, little research has investigated the profile of participants in the commercialized sector. In South Africa, adventure tourism has become a major contributor to local economic development in many small towns and a clear conceptualization of participants is needed to ensure effective and sustainable development. This study found that the majority of characteristics demonstrated in previous conceptualizations of the “adventure tourist” have changed. These changes are significant and should be considered both in general discussions of the current state of adventure tourism, as well as in marketing and management strategies and future development of adventure tourism operations.

Environmental attitudes and adventure tourism motivations

The natural environment plays an important role in adventure tourism. Specific environments are often necessary for certain types of adventure tourism and unique settings are seen to enhance the value of adventure tourism experiences. Given the importance of the environment in adventure tourism, the interplay between humans and the environment in this context should be given further attention. Although much research has examined the physical environmental impacts caused by specific activities considered adventure tourism, the impact of the environment on the behavior of adventure tourists has only briefly been touched upon. Environmental attitudes are said to be an indicator of environmentally conscious behavior. In the tourism context, however, conflicting results have been found as to whether or not environmental attitudes drive consumer behavior. Therefore, the manner in which environmental attitudes, using the New Environmental Paradigm scale, influence the motivations of participants in adventure tourism is investigated using the case of commercial adventure tourism in South Africa. The results show that the environmental attitudes of this group of tourists were relatively low and that the links between environmental attitudes and adventure tourism motivations are relatively weak. Therefore, the impact of general environmental attitudes on adventure tourist behavior is questionable.

The Emperor’s New Adventure: Public Secrecy and the Paradox of Adventure Tourism

This study suggests that successful commercial adventure tourism requires the construction of a “public secret”—something commonly known but not articulated—whereby tourists are able to maintain the contradictory perceptions that they are simultaneously safe and at risk. Previous research has observed that adventure tourism appears to embody a paradox in its attempt to deliver a planned, controlled version of an activity usually defined as dangerous and unpredictable. In order to explain how adventure tourism can succeed despite this paradox, researchers suggested that providers emphasize one aspect of the paradox (risk or safety) while concealing the other. By contrast, the author contends that providers attempt to sell both risk and safety simultaneously, a situation sustained by the fact that the inconsistency between these images, while openly displayed, remains veiled by public secrecy. The author illustrates this analysis through ethnographic research undertaken on whitewater rafting trips in California and Chile.

Monitoring Injury in the New Zealand Adventure Tourism Sector: An Operator Survey

Client safety is a major risk management concern for the commercial adventure tourism sector in New Zealand. This study built on previous exploratory analyses of New Zealand adventure tourism safety, including industry surveys conducted by these authors in 1999 and 2003. The aims of the study were to provide a continuation of injury monitoring across the sector through data collected from self-reported injury incidence by industry operators and to compare findings with those from other primary and secondary research studies conducted by the authors. A postal questionnaire was used to survey all identifiable New Zealand adventure tourism operators during 2006. The questionnaire asked respondents about their recorded client injury experience, perceptions of client injury risk factors, and safety management practices. Some 21 adventure tourism activities were represented among the responding sample (n = 127), with most operations being very small in terms of staff numbers, although responding operators catered to nearly 1 million clients in total annually. Highest ranked risk factors for client injury included clients not following instructions; level of client skill, ability, and fitness; and changeable/unpredictable weather conditions. Highest client injury was reported for horse riding, ecotourism, and white water rafting sectors, although serious underreporting of minor injuries was evidenced across the sector. Slips, trips, and falls were the most frequently reported injury mechanism, while safety management measures were inconsistently applied across the sector. The industry should address reporting culture issues and safety management practices generally. Specifically, the industry should consider risk management that focuses on minor (eg, falls) as well as catastrophic events.

Risk Management for Australian Commercial Adventure Tourism Operations

Society’s awareness of risks posed by environmental, industrial, and biological hazards has never been greater (Kolluru, 1996; Smith 2001). This awareness reflects the fact that most people want to live and flourish in a safe society, protected from danger and injury. On the face of it, the rapid growth of Australia’s adventure tourism industry over the last three decades seemingly counters the development of the safe society; this is because adventure tourism satisfies a tourist’s desire to engage in risk-taking behaviors. But do tourists really wish toface a real and likely possibility of injury occurring to them? We argue here that most adventure tourists seek simultaneously safe and exciting experiences. Adventure tourism operators provide suitable adventure experiences by managing the range of inherent hazards and risk.

How safe is adventure tourism in New Zealand? An exploratory analysis

The paper reports findings from a multidisciplinary programme of research, the major aims of which were to determine the nature and extent of the New Zealand adventure tourism injury problem. Analysis of hospital discharge and mortality data for a 15-year period identified adventure tourism-related activities as contributing to approximately 20% of overseas visitor injuries, and 22% of fatalities. Activities that commonly involve independent-unguided adventure tourism, notably mountaineering, skiing and tramping, contributed most to injury and fatality incidence. Horse riding and cycling activities were identified from hospital discharge data and adventure tourism operators’ reported client injury-incidence, as the commercial adventure tourism activities most frequently involved in client injuries. Falls were the most common injury events, and a range of client, equipment, environmental and organisational risk factors were identified. Possible interventions to reduce injury risk among overseas and domestic adventure tourists are discussed.

Recreational tourism injuries among visitors to New Zealand: an exploratory analysis using hospital discharge data

New Zealand Health Information Service (NZHIS) morbidity data for the 15-year period, 1982–1996, were analysed to determine the role of recreational and adventure tourism in overseas visitor injuries, and identify recreational activities with greatest injury occurrence. Approximately 19 per cent of all injuries involved recreational/adventure tourism activities, corresponding to 8.4 injuries per 100,000 overseas visitor arrivals. This figure can be compared to that for motor vehicle traffic accidents (12), and suggests a significant recreational tourism injury problem in New Zealand. Injuries were concentrated in regions known to be major centres for adventure tourism in New Zealand, and were most commonly sustained by overseas visitors aged between 20 and 40 years. Tourist injuries were observed most frequently for activities that involve independent, unguided recreation, notably skiing, mountaineering and tramping. Of the commercial adventure tourism activities, horse riding and cycling were the only significant contributors to overseas visitor injuries.

Unintentional Injury in New Zealand: Priorities and Future Directions

The paper reports findings from a multidisciplinary programme of research, the major aims of which were to determine the nature and extent of the New Zealand adventure tourism injury problem. Analysis of hospital discharge and mortality data for a 15-year period identified adventure tourism-related activities as contributing to approximately 20% of overseas visitor injuries, and 22% of fatalities. Activities that commonly involve independent-unguided adventure tourism, notably mountaineering, skiing and tramping, contributed most to injury and fatality incidence. Horse riding and cycling activities were identified from hospital discharge data and adventure tourism operators’ reported client injury-incidence, as the commercial adventure tourism activities most frequently involved in client injuries. Falls were the most common injury events, and a range of client, equipment, environmental and organisational risk factors were identified. Possible interventions to reduce injury risk among overseas and domestic adventure tourists are discussed.