Combining Paid Employment Research Articles

Continuation in hybrid entrepreneurship: Entrepreneurs responding to financial distress.

While previous research regards entrepreneurial exit as an exclusive decision between business continuation and engagement in other employment, we suggest that entrepreneurs might choose an alternative strategy by continuing their business while simultaneously entering paid employment. In contrast to entering self-employment while keeping a paid employment, the opposite case is to date often neglected or marginalized by entrepreneurship researchers. This switch from pure entrepreneurship to hybrid entrepreneurship, which we refer to as hybrid continuation, represents a significant share of all transitions from self-employment into paid employment. In this paper, we document the systematic use of such a strategy, study the determinants of hybrid continuation, and highlight consequences of acknowledging hybrid continuation for entrepreneurship research. Drawing on a large British household panel, we demonstrate the distinctiveness of hybrid continuation from both pure entrepreneurship and business exit and its implications for research on entrepreneurial exit. We also discuss and demonstrate differences between hybrid continuers and the second group of hybrid entrepreneurs, that is, hybrid entrants who keep employments while starting their business. Our findings, which focus on entrepreneurs’ decision after having started their business and having investing all their working time into their own business, imply that combining paid employment and self-employment in hybrid entrepreneurship has empirical and theoretical consequences not only at entry, but during the whole lifecycle of entrepreneurship.

The influence of caregiver burden on bereavement outcomes of spousal and adult-child family caregivers of patients who have died of cancer.

49 Background: Family caregivers (FCs) provide unpaid care to patients, outside of a formal framework. A demographic imperative currently exists to allow patients to be cared for in their own homes. FCs are a vital part of this support. However, their needs, and the burden of caregiving, are often under-recognised. Challenges facing FCs, in particular adult-child FCs, include a need to combine paid employment and other family commitments with caregiving. Negative consequences associated with caregiving include a higher risk of complicated grief in bereavement. Aims: To describe and compare the bereavement outcomes of spousal and adult-child FCs of patients who died of cancer, and to evaluate the factors of care associated with adverse bereavement outcomes for each FC group. Methods: Secondary data analysis was performed of data regarding bereavement outcomes, as measured by the Texas Revised Inventory of Grief (TRIG) scores of participants in the QUALYCARE study – a mortality follow-back study of FCs. Results: 484 caregiver-patient dyads were included: 246 adult-child FCs and 238 spousal FCs. Spousal FCs were older (68.4 vs. 50.7 years, p < 0.001). Caregiving intensity was similar in both groups of FCs, but adult-child FCs were more likely to continue working outside the home while caregiving (χ2, p < 0.001). Patients with adult-child FCs were more likely to die in a nursing home than those with a spousal FC (p < 0.001). Grief intensity was highest in spousal FCs whose relative had died in hospital or a nursing home, and lowest in adult-child FCs whose relative had died in a nursing home (n = 31, p < 0.001). Caregiver burden predicted 11.6% of variance in grief intensity for adult-child FCs vs. 0.5% for spousal FCs. Conclusions: Caregiving burden has particular implications for adult- child FCs as compared to spousal FCs, in terms of bereavement outcomes. Role strain describes overlapping responsibilities with simultaneous family roles. The risk of complicated grief may be modifiable through ensuring the provision of practical supports, as well as psychological support for the caregiver, and the excellent management of both physical and psychological symptoms experienced by the patient.

Overcoming Workplace Barriers: A Focus Group Study Exploring African American Mothers' Needs for Workplace Breastfeeding Support.

Persistent racial disparities in breastfeeding show that African American women breastfeed at the lowest rates. Return to work is a critical breastfeeding barrier for African American women who return to work sooner than other ethnic groups and more often encounter unsupportive work environments. They also face psychosocial burdens that make breastfeeding at work uniquely challenging. Participants share personal struggles with combining paid employment and breastfeeding and suggest workplace and personal support strategies that they believe will help continue breastfeeding after a return to work. To explore current perspectives on ways to support African American mothers' workplace breastfeeding behavior. Pregnant African American women (n = 8), African American mothers of infants (n = 21), and lactation support providers (n = 9) participated in 1 of 6 focus groups in the Greater Detroit area. Each focus group audiotape was transcribed verbatim. Thematic analysis was used to inductively analyze focus group transcripts and field notes. Focus groups explored thoughts, perceptions, and behavior on interventions to support African American women's breastfeeding. Participants indicate that they generally believed breastfeeding was a healthy option for the baby; however, paid employment is a critical barrier to successful breastfeeding for which mothers receive little help. Participants felt breastfeeding interventions that support working African American mothers should include education and training for health care professionals, regulation and enforcement of workplace breastfeeding support policies, and support from peers who act as breastfeeding role models. Culturally appropriate interventions are needed to support breastfeeding among working African American women.

Do Working Mothers Oppress Other Women? The Swedish “Maid Debate” and the Welfare State Politics of Gender Equality

Abstract In this article, we use a recent controversy concerning a tax policy designed to facilitate the hiring of housecleaners in Sweden as a case study to reconsider the politics of gender equity in contemporary welfare regimes. We identify a frontier of gender politics that is not captured by current comparative scholarship. As the boundary between family and market changes to accommodate the entry of women into the labor market, who will assume these women’s family‐welfare work? Under what terms should the state or market intervene? While research has focused on one dimension—child care—we follow the Swedish debate to shift attention toward other household labor that has been neglected, both in terms of public policy and scholarly analysis. Swedish and American working women live under two very different welfare regimes, yet they seem to face the same dilemma—either work an oppressive double shift, combining paid employment and unpaid housework, or employ help and expose themselves to the charge that...

The only way is up?

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to explore the reasons for the apparent “under‐achievement” of mothers working in accountancy, even when at similar levels of qualification to those of fathers.Design/methodology/approachAnalysis of the Institute of Chartered Accountants of England and Wales membership dataset was carried out, as well as semi‐structured work‐life interviews with ten male and ten female chartered accountants with children.FindingsThe paper finds that women do not progress in accountancy to the same extent as men, and earn considerably less. The qualitative evidence suggests that some residual gender discrimination is still present, but more important are the difficulties in combining paid employment with family responsibilities, particularly for those in higher‐level positions. Part‐time and flexible working carries with it a penalty in relation to both earnings and organisational status. The interviews do provide some evidence of change, however.Practical implicationsWhile men (and women) continue to work very long hours in the UK, while the gender pay gap persists, and while women continue to take on the majority of childcare and housework, women are also likely to “choose” to work below their abilities, especially when economic pressures are not a primary issue.Originality/valueBy adopting a mixed‐methods approach, the paper highlights that, while workplace‐related barriers still hinder mothers' career progression in accountancy, the division of domestic labour is at least, if not more, important.

Women’s experiences of combining eldercare and paid work in the Scottish food retail sector

This paper draws upon qualitative data from a mixed-methods study to consider women’s everyday experiences of combining paid employment with informal care for older relatives. Women who participated in the study were employed in shop floor jobs in the Scottish food retail sector. We offer data and analysis of two under-researched topics, namely eldercare, and the reconciliation of unpaid caring with employment in food retailing. The paper addresses three aspects of women’s everyday experiences: managing the everyday sequencing of paid employment and unpaid care activities; anticipating contingency; planning for the long term. Throughout our analysis, we consider the implications of combining paid employment and unpaid care activities for women’s quality of life, health and well-being.

Combining work and family life: the pension penalty of caring

This paper uses work and caring history information from the British Family and Working Lives Survey (1994/5) to examine the provision of family care and its impact upon the employment and the subsequent state and private pension entitlement among mid-life men and women. Combining paid employment with care-giving was not an option for a significant minority of women with caring responsibilities in mid-life. One-in-five mid-life women who have ever had caring responsibilities reported that, upon starting caring, they stopped work altogether, and another one-in-five reported that they worked fewer hours, earned less money or could only work restricted hours. Fewer men and women who stopped work as a result of caring were members of an occupational pension scheme than other groups; and they had accumulated fewer years of contributions than their counterparts who continued working, with direct implications for their level of pension income in later life. The extension of employers' schemes to help workers balance paid work and family responsibilities would facilitate more carers remaining in the labour market, as would an explicit carers' dimension within the new ‘Working Tax Credit’. Consideration should also be given to extending credits for second tier pensions to working carers who provide care for over 16 hours a week and who earn below the lower earnings limit. This will ensure that carers who juggle low paid work and care are not penalised for working, and that their unpaid contribution to society is recognised.

Routes into education and employment for young Pakistani and Bangladeshi women in the UK

The article examines the educational and employment experiences and aspirations of young Pakistani and Bangladeshi people living in Oldham, in Great Manchester. Many young people demonstrated high aspirations and high levels of participation, particularly in relation to the educational and occupational level of their parents. Explanatory factors include the cultural value of education among Asian groups, the desire by parents to ensure success for their children and the ethnic penalty which these young people incur in the labour market. However, not all Pakistani and Bangladeshi young people have these aspirations. Girls who wished to continue their education faced a more complex situation than boys; for girls it was important to avoid jeopardizing the family honour. Nonetheless, national statistics show a marked increase in the numbers of young Pakistani and Bangladeshi women in full-time undergraduate courses in recent years. Women with degree level qualifications showed considerable determination to combine paid employment with family life.

The value of event history techniques for understanding social processes: Modelling women's employment behaviour after motherhood

Over the last two decades there has been an increase in the longitudinal data available to social scientists, and this has been accompanied by the development of concepts and tools which allow for a rigorous approach to empirical research. However, there is still an appreciable gap between the methodological innovations within the field of applied statistics and the everyday practice of the majority of social scientists. The aim of this paper is therefore to demonstrate some of the advantages of using event history data to underpin our understanding of social processes. In particular, the paper explores the benefits of using SABRE (Software for the analysis of binary recurrent events, developed at the University of Lancaster) as a tool for carrying out event history analysis. The specific advantage of this software is that it allows the researcher to focus on duration effects or temporal dependencies in the social process under investigation. The substantive focus of the paper is the way in which women manage to combine paid employment with motherhood. Analyses are based on data from women's life histories, collected as part of the fifth sweep of the National Child Development Survey carried out in 1991. Within this paper, the primary focus is on the conceptual issues raised by modelling event history data; statistical terminology and notation has been kept to a minimum.

Combining employment and parenthood: A longitudinal study of intentions of Dutch young adults

This paper examines the intentions of Dutch males and females with regard to combining paid employment and parenthood. Four models of how couples combine these roles are distinguished. Panel data from a representative survey among Dutch young adults show that the traditional model (the female takes care of the children and the male works full-time) is becoming less popular, whereas the supplementary model (the female takes care of the children and supplements the labor force participation of the male), and the egalitarian model (both partners share paid labor more or less equally) are becoming more popular. The no-child model is preferred by about 10% of the respondents. A multivariate analysis shows that both job characteristics, like the flexibility of working hours, and gender role attitudes are important predictors of intentions with regard to combining family and work roles.