Column Drums Research Articles

‘Nietzsche, the Philosopher and Politician’, By Alfred Baeumler

Following one of our research lines, we present here the first English translation of ‘Nietzsche, the philosopher and politician’, one of the masterpieces written by Professor Dr. Alfred Baeumler. We repeat what Baeumler said in this text: I have tried to lay bare the ground plan of a buried temple and roll some column drums on top of each other. I hope others will undertake the reconstruction of the complete building. This task continues.

FEA stress analysis of the Tower of Pisa as a way for students to explore the sphere of virtual testing

FEA of stress state for Pisa Tower is accomplished. Imaginary vertical orientation of the tower is simulated as well as its actual leaning position too. Moderate deformational incompatibility between “column drum” and “stem” load-bearing systems is revealed. Twofold overstressing of lower colonnade is found comparatively to the stem surface. Tower’s compressive stress concentrators are described. The inner helical passage into stem causes a periodical stress concentration about 1.5 – 2 times in the passage vicinity. Arch compression concentrator tied to stem – basis transition is revealed. Places for priority monitoring of marble masonry are pointed out.Some methodic experience is gained due to lively and successful student participation in all phases of the Pisa Tower FEM simulation.

New Finds Regarding the Architecture and Sculptures of Ancient Tenea

Excavations in 2019 and 2020 in ancient Tenea revealed a main part of the city’s central web with public buildings totaling approximately 1.100 square meters. In particular, part of a public bath complex of Roman times was excavated, as well as part of an area of the Archaic times of religious significance. Several fragmentary statues have been found in the excavation of ancient Tenea and illustrate the visual culture of this centre from the severe style period to the late Hellenistic times. Moreover a relief of Dionysus held by a Satyr is walled in the main Church of Chiliomodi and should be dated in the Antonine times. During the recent period of the Tenea excavation, some important architectural blocks have been found, including Ionic and Doric capitals and column drums from different buildings. Among these limestone blocks there were fragments of triglyphs, a part of a Doric epistyle and part of a Doric column capital derived probably from the same building. Measuring the glyphs of the triglyph fragments in which a part of the metopes is saved, incorporated to the blocks, in relation with the taenia and the guttae of the epistyle, we found out that they belong to the same entablature of a middle scale Doric façade. To this façade probably belongs also the fragment of a Doric capital, without column’s rings. The beginning of the flutes is elaborated with a tooth chisel and only a part of the echinus and the hypotrachelion is saved. The width of the triglyphs is measured to 56–57 cm, identical dimension to the hypotrachelion of the capital at the level of the apophyge. Also at these blocks some lifting grooves have been found (named “lykos” in Greek), dated from the late archaic period until the middle of classic. During the research for comparanda to these blocks we initially thought that they could belong to a Doric propylon. After a preliminary analysis we can say that they look similar to those at the prostylon of the Thesaurus of Megara, at Delphi. The blocks of Tenea have the same dimensions and they form a similar building to this Thesaurus. Based on the exact type of this monument, following the same dimensions and geometry for the formation of the front view we tried to create an hypothetical representation of the blocks as part of the proposed entablature and finally, present as an hypothesis the entire front view of the monument, which was probably an archaic naiskos, situated very near to the present excavation site.

TWO NOTES ON THE NEW CROESUS EPIGRAM FROM THEBES

In March 2005 a rescue excavation uncovered a spectacular new epigraphic find from Thebes. Now on display in the Archaeological Museum of Thebes, a column drum 0.41 m in height has inscribed on it two identical epigrams, one (the older one) written vertically in Boeotian script and a second (later) Ionian copy written horizontally on the other side. Nikolaos Papazarkadas published theeditio princepsof the epigram in 2014, using both inscriptions to create a composite text. As Papazarkadas realized, the column drum, which has a chi-shaped orifice at one end meant to hold a stationary object, at one point displayed a ‘shining shield’ (φαεννὰν | [ἀσπ]ίδα, lines 3–4) that Herodotus had seen in the temple of Apollo Ismenius in Thebes. Moreover, this shield was interpreted by Herodotus (relying on the language of the inscription and likely on the commentary of temple staff) as having been dedicated by the Lydian king Croesus to the hero Amphiaraus, when he was ‘testing’ the various oracles in Greece in order to decide on a course of action against his rival Cyrus of Persia.

The Name Jerusalem in a Late Second Temple Period Jewish Inscription

The article presents a late Second Temple period Jewish inscription discovered on a column drum at the Binyanei Ha<Umma excavations in modern Jerusalem. The inscription is unique: to the best of our knowledge it is the first occurrence in the archaeological record that contains the full version of the name Jerusalem (YRWÚLYM), with the waw and the final yod. Since the original provenance of the inscription is unknown, its purpose is obscure. One of its outstanding details is the name of the scribe, DYDLWS/DWDLWS, which was probably the moniker of the artist or master craftsman. As he gained fame, perhaps his colleagues gave him, or perhaps he took for himself, this ancient Greek mythological figure’s name. The nickname Daidalos/ Dodlos would have been fitting for someone likely to have worked, like his son Hananiah, in a pottery factory adjacent to where the inscribed column drum was found.

The sanctuary of Zeus Krezimos in Metropolis in Ionia

The sacred site of Zeus Krezimos, just in front of the rocky part of the northern slope of the Metropolis acropolis, is considered to be the first cult center discovered in the ancient city. Although the exact location of the cult center of Ares, the god of the city, is unknown, it is thought to be on the acropolis in an exceptional situation. The only cult centers older than dedicated to Ares are the sacred caves of the Mother Goddess, whose name was given to the city. In these sacred caves located in Uyuzdere, 5 km outside the city, the Mother Goddess was worshiped until the advent of Christianity. During the excavation consequent upon the stylobate blocks discovered in 2015, in excavations at the sacred site of Zeus Krezimos, the discovery of an inscribed columns, a part of an altar and a sculpture base caused an excitement. It is not yet certain whether the columns had capitals. The inscribed sections on the column drums surrounding the courtyard are arranged in a way to face the courtyard. The base diameter of the columns erected on the surface of the stylobate extends out at some places, suggesting the possibility of a second function. The courtyard is covered in local limestone slabs. As a result of a trench opened in this area, it was understood that the floor was in-filled with rubble and marble pieces. In addition, rooms that were thought to have been used in cult ceremonies in the northern and eastern parts of the sanctuary, which is located behind the columns, were uncovered. Further, a certain area of the main rock was cut in a regular fashion and the fact that this is interconnected with the architectural structure is an example of a construction technique that has not been found elsewhere in Metropolis to date. As a result of the studies conducted on the inscriptions, it was understood that this area was a cult area dedicated to Zeus Krezimos. This cult area was known to exist at Metropolis but its exact location was unknown. The discovery of the Zeus Krezimos cult area in Metropolis is of great importance, inasmuch as the cults of Hera and Ares worshipped in Metropolis, which are also known from inscriptions but their locations have not yet been found. The fact that this sacred area was built right in front of a large rocky area and integrated with the rock also shows the cult at Metropolis was a continuation of the ancient tradition in Anatolia of worshiping the gods and goddesses on mountains and in rocky high lands. In studies conducted on the inscriptions, this cult was also understood to have had a connection with water due to the hydrobaphos attribute recorded of one of the civil servants working in the cult. This provides us with clues about a ceremonial ritual associated with rocks and the spring water from them. Today, although there is no water source in this rocky area, it is thought that such a source of water emerged from the rocky area at the time when the cults were still active. Consequently, the cult with Zeus Krezimos epithet is thought to have been a local cult associated with fertility and abundance. The fact that the Zeus Krezimos cult was specific to Metropolis is supported by the epigraphic evidence. The inscribed column drums in the sacred area carry lists of the names of the priests serving here. In past years, inscribed column drums relating to the Ares cult known to exist in the city were found, and on these drums the name lists of people serving in the cult area as well as those in the sanctuary of Zeus Krezimos were included. The cult of Zeus Krezimos was behind that of Ares in the hierarchy, but nevertheless families were active in it, those whose family heads were ambitious for themselves and their relatives put them into positions within the cult. There existed personal connections to other cults, some at the level of the priests, more often on the level of the Odrogos. The women of the families – with the function of priestess, of the hydrobaphos and the female servant – were subordinate, but still prominent. Also in this cult no wife was allowed in the position of the priestess. The priest “Hermas” and the hydrobaphos are propria of the cult.

Topographical indications for the site of the hippodrome of Delphi

Locating the position of the Delphic hippodrome is a long‑standing question in the archaeology of the site. The suggestions made so far by early modern travellers and contemporary researchers have not yielded results, and thus it is considered to be lost in the alluvial soils of the Chrisso olive groves. In general, our inability to spot ancient Greek hippodromes is due to their lack of monumental structures, as they were situated in any suitable, naturally landscaped space. The site of Gonia, 1 km north of Itea in the southwestern part of the Kirrha plain, matches the information gleaned from the ancient literary sources for this monument, from Pindar to Pausanias, and brings together all the features required for an ancient hippodrome: the elongated space of about 1 km in length would easily fit the racing grounds themselves, its dimensions corresponding to those known from the Olympic racecourse. The flat area is surrounded by natural slopes on three of its four sides, ideal for spectators' stands, where stone seats have been spotted, carved into the bedrock. At the northern end, the grounds appear amphitheatrical; a roughly‑made column drum found there appears similar to that from the Lykaion racecourse, generally identified as the base of a turning‑post. The new find signals a breakthrough in our knowledge of ancient Greek hippodromes, calls for a re‑evaluation of the question of the Archaic stadium at Delphi and its location, and, further, invites consideration regarding the number of participants in equestrian events.

TOWARDS RECONSTRUCTING A DORIC COLUMN IN A VIRTUAL CONSTRUCTION SITE

Abstract. This paper deals with the 3D reconstruction of ancient Greek architectural members, especially with the element of the Doric column. The case study for this project is the Choragic monument of Nicias on the South Slope of the Athenian Acropolis, from which a column drum, two capitals and smaller fragments are preserved. The first goal of this paper is to present some benefits of using 3D reconstruction methods not only in documentation but also in understanding of ancient Greek architectural members. The second goal is to take advantage of the produced point clouds. By using the Cloud Compare software, comparisons are made between the actual architectural members and an “ideal” point cloud of the whole column in its original form. Seeking for probable overlaps between the two point clouds could assist in estimating the original position of each member/fragment on the column. This method is expanded with more comparisons between the reference column model and other members/fragments around the Acropolis, which may have not yet been ascribed to the monument of Nicias.

Pattern Matching and the Analysis of Damaged Ancient Objects

We describe a common problem in the curation and analysis of archaeological materials: restoring the orientation and dimensions of damaged objects. Our focus is a common architectural type in Mediterranean sites, the Doric column drum, which we investigate at one of the earliest Doric temples in the Greek world, the Hera temple at Olympia. The 3D modeling and analysis of this building by the Digital Architecture Project since 2013 has revealed new insights into the construction history of its stone colonnades. This paper concerns the analysis of the 3D models of the in situ material, using the almost 100 fallen drums and capitals to reconstruct the colonnade digitally. In order to accomplish this, we propose two novel methods for training the machine to estimate the dimensions of a fragmentary column drum. One approach is a modification of ICP, where the fragment is compared to an ideal model of an intact drum, which is resized iteratively until concluding with a satisfactory fit. Another approach recasts the scan data into polar coordinates and uses RANSAC to identify the exterior profiles of the piece and remove points likely to belong to damaged areas. The filtered points are then examined by the algorithm to estimate the radii and taper of the drum. Besides saving a great deal of time in the field, these methods are also accurate to within 0.2% of the total radius for well-preserved material, and 1% for even the most fragmentary drums at Olympia. These data have allowed the digital reconstruction of 80% of the displaced drums and all of the capitals from the temple. Our algorithms can be used to measure any fluted column drums, and we discuss the potential value of our approach for other categories of archaeological artifacts.

The Underwater Recovery of Monumental Marble Column Drums from an Ancient Shipwreck at Kızılburun, Turkey

In the first century B.C., a stone carrier sank off the Aegean coast of Turkey at Kizilburun transporting all the elements of a monumental marble column, including a single Doric capital and eight drums. The 60-tonne cargo lay at a depth of 45–48 m and was excavated in its entirety by the Institute of Nautical Archaeology at Texas A&M University between 2005 and 2011. Ongoing research has shown that the Doric column pieces in the Kizilburun cargo originated in the marble quarries on Proconnesus Island in the Sea of Marmara and were very likely heading for the Temple of Apollo at Claros when the ship sank just 50 km short of its destination. The complete recovery of the ship’s cargo posed a unique set of methodological challenges involving lifting the multi-tonne marble drums without disturbing the delicate waterlogged wooden hull remains preserved beneath. This report summarizes the solutions developed over five seasons in order to rig, hoist, move, and ultimately raise to the surface eight large ancient marble column drums (as well as all the other marble artifacts in the cargo) from a depth of almost 50 m under water.

The Kızılburun Shipwreck and the Temple of Apollo at Claros

At some point in the Late Hellenistic period, an ancient marble carrier sank off the western coast of Asia Minor near the promontory now called Kızılburun. The ship had set out from Proconnesos Island laden with a freshly quarried cargo of architectural parts intended for the Temple of Apollo at Claros, but the vessel sank before reaching its destination. The remains of the shipwrecked cargo, discovered in 1993 and under excavation since 2005, include a Doric capital and eight column drums with an estimated total weight of at least 50 tons. Isotopic and metrological data indicate Proconnesos as the source of the marble and Claros as the destination of the unfinished column found in the Kızılburun shipwreck. The discovery provides a unique snapshot of quarrying processes, long-distance transport by sea, and monumental construction in marble in Late Hellenistic Asia Minor.

A tale of three drums: an unfinished Archaic votive column in the Sanctuary of Poseidon at Kalaureia

Three unfinished column drums discovered at the Kalaureia Research Program excavations in 2007–2009 can be shown to have been intended for a monumental Archaic Ionic votive column. All drums have systematic masons’ marks on the contact surfaces. The latter parts of the inscriptions indicate the position of the drum in the shaft. Two alternative readings for the first part of the inscription are suggested: the first interprets it as a building instruction and the second as a price indication. The start of the building project took place very likely in the second half of the sixth century BC, and the deposit date of the fill surrounding the blocks indicates that the unfinished project was abandoned in the late sixth century BC. Reconstruction of the column shaft from the known drum dimensions demonstrates that the finished shaft would have been constructed with a slight entasis.

Archaeological evidence for destructive earthquakes in Sicily between 400 B.C. and A.D. 600

AbstractA systematic archaeoseismological study indicates that at least three earthquakes occurred between 400 B.C. and A.D. 600, causing destruction to numerous ancient monuments in Sicily. Evidence for these earthquakes comes from the collapse style of buildings (toppled walls, column drums in a domino‐style arrangement, directional collapses, etc.), and the exclusion of other likely causes for such effects. Dating of inferred earthquakes is based on coins (accurate to within 5–10 years), pottery (accurate to within 50–200 years), and other artifacts. The oldest documented earthquake occurred between 370 and 300 B.C. and caused the collapse of two Greek temples in Selinunte. This otherwise poorly documented event was probably also the cause of extensive destruction in northeastern Sicily in the first century A.D. Destruction of some sites may be assigned to an earthquake that occurred between 360 and 374 and correlates with the A.D. 365 seismic sequence known from historical sources. This study covers a wider region and provides a more precise dating of earthquakes than previous studies. Although it focuses on a certain period (4th–3rd centuries B.C., 4th–7th centuries A.D.), it indicates that the period before A.D. 1000 is not a period of seismic quiescence in Sicily as was previously believed, but to a period characterized by strong and destructive earthquakes. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

THE ARCHAIC TEMPLE OF ZEUS LABRAUNDOS

The aim of this paper is to discuss the existence of the Archaic phase of the Temple of Zeus in the Labraunda Sanctuary. Previously, the earlier temple in antis was brought to light by the technical details which were discussed by Hellström and Thieme. Then Thieme published a short article about the architectural elements from the sanctuary and made much clear the connection of the architectural elements and the temple in antis. In spite of these studies the existence and the construction date of the temple in antis is still controversial. It is aimed in this paper to investigate all the evidences including previous research, existing remains, architectural elements and historical sources for the earlier temple. For this scope, not only the published ones but also some new unpublished architectural fragments will be fully investigated and dated by the previously dated parallel examples. The architectural fragments consist of a column drum with 36 flutes, a column neck fragment, an Ionic capital fragment, 2 complete and 6 fragments of the crown blocks and 8 dentil blocks. Although, the architectural fragments, except the Ionic capital, are suggested very strongly as belonging to the Archaic temple of Zeus Labraundos, the historical sources for the temple is lacking: the terms hieron used by Herodotus and xoanon by Strabo are strong evidence for the existence of the temple. This investigation suggests that all the evidence indicate that there was a temple to Zeus Labraundos from the late Archaic period and that was enlarged during the Hekatomnid dynasty.

Design and application of hydraulic grouts of high injectability for the structural restoration of the column drums of the Parthenon Opisthodomos

The column drums of the Opisthodomos of the Parthenon featured a multitude of very fine cracks, due to the great fire of the 3rd century A.D. and the explosion of the building in 1687. Instead of dismantling the columns, the in situ structural restoration by hydraulic grouts injections was decided, as this would involve the least intervention to the monument. The objective of this intervention was to fill in the best possible way the very fine cracks, while maintaining the structural independence of the column drums, thus preserving the existing structural system of the columns. In this paper, the methodology of the design, the most important results of the comparative parametric studies for the selection of the optimum compositions, the basic principles of in situ production and application, the quality control of the injections and the extent of crack filling, will be presented and commented upon.

A Dilmun temple in Bilad al‐Qadim, Bahrain: A preliminary indication?

Excavations and surveys completed in the putative former Early Islamic capital, Bilad al‐Qadim in Bahrain, uncovered a variety of structural remains of seemingly pre‐Islamic date. These, an altar, ashlars and column drums recorded at the disused spring of Abu Zaydan, are conceivably from a Dilmun period structure, perhaps a temple. This idea is briefly explored and the relevant material described.

HİERAPOLİS ARKEOLOJİ MÜZESİ BAHÇESİ’NDE VE GÜNEY ROMA HAMAMI’NDA BULUNAN İONİK MİMARİ ELEMANLAR İLE İLGİLİ BİR DEĞERLENDİRME

The purpose of this paper is to investigate Ionic architectural elements founded in the garden of Archaeological Museum and at south Roman bath in Hierapolis. As we know, there are two different groups of elements. First, two Ionic capitals and an upper column drum which were founded by D.D.B Ferrero in sanctuary of Apollon are now exhibited in the garden of Hierapolis Archaeology Museum. The other ones are column bases, column drums, inscription on column drum, peace of capitals and capitals, which were founded by C. Şimşek, are now at abodyterium of south Roman bath. Capitals and other blocks founded at south Roman bath were reused in Roman Imperial Age at there. There are publications about these elements; the previous ones were dated to reign of Flavian, the second ones were dated toreign of Tiberius, according to inscription on column drum.

Numerical study of the seismic behaviour of a part of the Parthenon Pronaos

AbstractA numerical study of the seismic behaviour of a proposed restoration of the Parthenon Pronaos is presented. The column‐architrave classical structure was represented by a discrete element model, with the assumption of rigid blocks and frictional joints. Time domain analyses were performed, considering the geometric and material non‐linear behaviour at the joints. The deformation and failure modes of drum columns subject to seismic excitations of various types and intensities were analysed. The adverse influence of drum imperfections on structural safety was examined. A proposal of reinforcement with titanium connections was analysed, and it was found that architrave connections generally improve the response by decreasing the permanent displacements, while titanium dowels between the column drums do not improve significantly the behaviour and in some cases they may be unfavourable to the safety of the structure. Copyright 2003 John Wiley &amp; Sons, Ltd.

A Public Column Drum from a Corinthian Quarry

A Public Column Drum from a Corinthian Quarry

A Public Column Drum from a Corinthian Quarry

This study presents a two-letter inscription, ΔA, an abbreviation of the Greek word meaning public, carved on the lifting boss of a drum abandoned in a Corinthian quarry. The inscription constitutes the first epigraphical evidence for public ownership of Corinthian limestone quarries and adds to our understanding of the legal status of quarries in pre-Roman Greece.