Color Blind Individuals Research Articles

Shirt-color recognition for the color-blindness

Color-blind is a generic disability whereby the affected individuals are not given the opportunity to benefit from the various functions provided by color that would impact humans physically and psychologically. Although this disability is not fatal, it brought plenty of turbulence in the affected individuals’ daily activities. This paper aims to develop a system for recognizing and detecting colors of clothes in images, improve accuracy by using advanced algorithms to handle lighting variations, and provide color matching recommendations to assist color-blind individuals in making informed choices when purchasing shirts. The proposed methodology for color recognition involves:•retrieving the RGB values of a given point from the input image and converting them into HSV values.•creating web application integrated with a machine learning model to classify and predict the corresponding color based on the HSV values.•predicting the color name with suggestions of matching colors will be displayed on the interface.

Machine learning enabled microneedle-based colorimetric pH sensing patch for wound health monitoring and meat spoilage detection

Since pH can alter the biological functions, level of nutrients, wound healing process, and the behavior of chemicals, various healthcare and food industries are showing increased interest in manufacturing low-cost optical pH sensors for meat spoilage detection and wound health monitoring. To meet this demand, we have developed a simple and low-cost machine learning-enabled microneedle-based colorimetric pH sensing patch that can be used for food quality and wound health monitoring applications. The 3D–printed ultrasharp open side channel microneedle array facilitated the autonomous fluid extraction and transportation via surface tension for colorimetric pH sensing. Further, to predict the exact pH value against the obtained color on the pH-test strip, a machine learning model was prepared using experimentally collected different color images obtained from a known pH solution. Furthermore, to make the device user-friendly for older individuals and color-blind individuals, a simple and smartphone-enabled web application was prepared using the developed machine learning model. The proof-of-concept study of the developed patch was demonstrated by determining the pH of real meat samples before and after spoilage and detecting pH in two different skin-mimicking in vitro models (phantom gel and parafilm tape) using a smartphone. The analytical results demonstrated that the developed machine learning-enabled microneedle-based colorimetric pH sensing patch has excellent potential for wound health and food safety applications.

Considerations for colorblind individuals on selecting colorimetric or fluorescent dye assay outcomes.

A disadvantage of colorimetric detection in nucleic acid amplification assays is the possibility thata colorblind individual may interpret colors differently than observers with full-color vision. Using an isothermal amplification assay, the ability of colorblind individuals to distinguish between positive and negative results for four dyeswas tested. Five individuals with self-reported colorblindness and four with full-color vision reported their observations of the color of the solution. Although colorblind individuals may accurately interpret assay results, they were often not accurate in reporting the color. Hydroxynaphthol blue was the most problematic dye, and both phenol red and SYBR™ green were less troublesome. Consideration for colorblind individuals is warranted when developing an assay and training staff in its performance.

Color Blindness in the Digital Gaming Landscape: Addressing Critical Issues and Research Gaps

Color blindness is a condition that affects a significant portion of the population, particularly men. It is characterized by difficulty perceiving colors in the same way as people with normal color vision, which can result in confusion when distinguishing between different colors. This can impact various aspects of life, including playing digital games. In computer games, colors are often used to convey important information, such as distinguishing enemies from allies or indicating objectives. A person with color blindness may have difficulty identifying these visual cues, which can make the game less enjoyable and even affect their ability to play the game. Previous research has been conducted on accessiblity but very few of these studies have focused on the intersection of color blindness and digital games. The aim of this study is to examine the relationship between color blindness and game design through a comprehensive literature review, identifying key findings and highlighting any missing components in the existing research. To accomplish this, the sources were classified according to their focus, method, and findings. From examining all of the resources found, the studies in the intersection between color blindness and game design that reviewed, organized into various subject headings for further analysis and understanding. It was explored that the researches organized under certain four main topics as follows: (1) defining guidelines to provide better game experience for color blind individuals, (2) offering alternative methods for detecting color blindness; and (3) examining technologies developed to improve the visual experience of color blind individuals and (4) examining color blindness on gaming performance. Additionally, the majority of the reviewed studies focus on discussing digital games in terms of accessibility, while some studies suggest utilizing games as a testing method and educational tool for individuals with accessibility issues, effectively turning challenges into advantages. On the other hand, they also explore the potential of games in solving problems related to accessibility in gaming. However, there is still many issues to be explored in terms of understanding how color blindness affects the experience of games. There is a research gap in exploring whether color blind individuals experience physical and sensory differences in perceiving digital game visuals, as no study has been conducted to address this aspect. It may address critical issues in understanding the color blindness experience from the perspective of perception and senses of this disadvantaged group.

A Color Guide for Color Blind People Using Image Processing and OpenCV

Colors are the smiles of nature. Digital image processing has widely employed the use of the function the color due to its effectiveness as a tool in classifying and identifying objects, which can be distinguished based on various relevant shades of color. This work aims to create a software tool that assists color-blind individuals in identifying the colors and edges in an image that may appear similar to them. If you are not suffering from a color vision deficiency it is very hard to imagine how it looks like to be color blind. Individuals with color blindness are limited and sometimes even disqualified from specific professions due to their inability to differentiate between colors. The objective of this research is to create a technique or approach for accurately identifying different shades of colors and predicting their names specifically for individuals with color blindness. This project utilizes image processing techniques to create a system that can recognize and distinguish colors in an image. The algorithm used for color detection in this project recognizes pixels in an image that correspond to a defined color or color range and provides the name of the color along with its corresponding B, G and R values. This work will be very helpful for people who suffer from color blindness especially when they want to know the color of the things.

High visibility colored fabrics for normal trichromats and individuals with color vision defects in a sunset-simulated environment.

This study aimed to investigate the visibility of colors in congenitally color vision defect people using general and fluorescent colors in an environment simulating sunset to examine the standards for high-visibility safety clothing for general users. Twenty participants with normal trichromats, seven protanopes, and five deuteranopes were included, with mean ages (± standard deviation) of 21.0±1.0, 46,7±16.1, and 56.6±6.9 years, respectively. Dyed fabrics were used to evaluate visibility. We evaluated brightness and conspicuousness sensitivity by combining red, yellow-red, yellow, green, red-purple, blue, white, black, fluorescent yellow, and fluorescent orange. For brightness sensitivity, the combination of fluorescent yellow and white/yellow stripes was highly visible and significantly different from all other samples (p < 0.05). For conspicuousness sensitivity, the combinations of black/fluorescent yellow, black/yellow, black/white, black/yellow-red, and white/red-purple stripes were highly visible and significantly different from all the other samples (p < 0.05). Yellow light is most visible and even better when fluorescent. They are based on specific spectral sensitivity, and yellow is the most visible, even for congenitally colorblind individuals. Furthermore, with regard to color combinations, it was found that the contrast between two distinct light or dark colors, such as black, yellow, black, and white, is perceived to be equally noticeable by congenital color vision defect individuals. This suggests the possible further applications of safety clothing.

Visual Finance: The Pervasive Effects of Red on Investor Behavior

The visual communication of financial information is commonplace and involves numerous facets, including the use of color. At the same time, perception of color influences behavior. Through eight experiments, we show that using red color to represent financial data impacts individuals’ risk preferences, expectations of future stock returns, and trading decisions. The effects are not present in colorblind individuals and are muted in China, where red represents prosperity. Other colors, including yellow and blue, do not generate the same effects. Overall, we demonstrate that simple perceptual processes influence complex investor behavior, which is important given society’s increasing reliance on visual communication. This paper was accepted by David Simchi-Levi, finance.

Characterizing the Effects of Enchroma Glasses on Color Discrimination.

Enchroma glasses were designed to improve color vision among color-blind individuals. The putative aid of such optic filters in alleviating color blindness remains to be demonstrated. Our study shows that the beneficial impacts on color discrimination are quite small in comparison to the undesirable effects. Congenital color blindness is a common genetic anomaly, and there is still no effective aid for affected people. Enchroma glasses are selective filters designed to enhance color discrimination among red-green color-blind individuals. However, there is a lack of data supporting their efficiency. The present study aimed to characterize the effect of Enchroma filters on color discrimination. Colorimetric coordinates of figures from a pseudoisochromatic (American Optical Hardy-Rand-Rittler [AO H-R-R]) test were measured. Nine color-blind and five control adult participants performed the AO H-R-R test and a color-naming task using monochromatic stimuli. All data were collected with and without Enchroma filters. Colorimetric coordinates of AO H-R-R figures were shifted out of their respective pseudoisochromatic line. The AO H-R-R error scores of participants with color blindness were not clearly improved by the filters except for the protanopic subgroup. However, the filters promoted a change in the classification of the defect, specifically by increasing protan errors in deutan participants. In the color-naming task, Enchroma filters impaired perception in all participants, specifically for cyan stimuli. Enchroma filters may affect the nature of a color vision deficiency without necessarily alleviating its severity. Although the performance of protan participants increased in the pseudoisochromatic task with Enchroma filters, this was the only improvement observed across tasks and subgroups. In summary, this study does not support the efficacy of Enchroma filters in correcting color discrimination in color-blind individuals.

Colour blindness adversely impacts face recognition

ABSTRACT Whether colour information contributes to the process of face recognition remains controversial. We examine this question here by evaluating the face recognition performance of individuals who are colour blind. Specifically, we compared the performance profile of colour blind and matched control individuals on a colour face recognition task where shape information was progressively degraded. The colour blind participants performed significantly more poorly than controls on this task, as revealed through multiple dependent measures. There was, however, no difference between these two groups on a standardized grayscale control task of face recognition, ruling out a generic face recognition deficit. These results both uncover a face recognition deficit in colour blind individuals and provide evidence for the contribution of colour to everyday facial recognition.

Colorblind cybernetic eye: an inclusive analogy for color vision

This work presents an experiment that seeks to simulate human color vision through electronic components in an attempt to build, together with the students, a cybernetic ‘eye’. The limitation of the cybernetic eye developed here in relation to the standard human chromatic vision, which makes it a ‘colorblind eye’, is an argument to be explored by the teacher to discuss this predominantly genetic anomaly, raising awareness and discussing the need for public policies aimed at the inclusion of colorblind individuals. It can also be treated as an interdisciplinary manner, bringing physics and biology closer together. Using inexpensive, easy-to-purchase electronic components, the experiment produces data that, when treated, highlight the possibility of using the RGB LED as a light receiver, as well as its limitations for discerning colors.

Improvement suggestions for problems of hazard map from the viewpoint of color scheme

Abstract. Local governments often rely on hazard maps to plan for and respond to local natural disasters. These maps often rely on the use of many colors, but their exact color scheme and style differs in each area. As a result, we hypothesize that some users, specifically colorblind individuals, may have difficulty correctly understanding the information on some of these hazard maps. In this study, we test that hypothesis by conducting a survey of Japanese liquefaction hazard maps and their visual accessibility. To this end, we first undergo a survey of the color schemes used in these maps and investigate whether they are easily understood by people with colorblindness. We next specifically analyze several maps we deem particularly problematic in terms of color scheme and visibility, using these as case studies to discuss issues with accessibility and to summarize possible countermeasures. Our survey found that liquefaction hazard maps use one of three main color schemes: “diverging color scheme,” “Sequential cold colors,” or “sequential warm colors.” However, while there were issues with several maps, including difficulty reading the background map or correctly understanding the risk of liquefaction, these difficulties were not related to the color scheme used. To improve the accessibility of hazard maps, therefore, is necessary to create a unified manual that contains the following information: an examination of colors, the utilization of a universal design check tool, and the use of GIS vector data.

Exploring the association between glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency and color blindness in Southeast Asia

Abstract Background Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) deficiency poses problems for the treatment of Plasmodium vivax malaria, as the 8-aminoquinolines, used to eliminate liver hypnozoites, cause hemolysis in G6PD-deficient individuals.G6PD deficiency is an X-linked disorder that can be linked to other conditions determined by genes located nearby on the Xq28 band of the X chromosome, including red–green color blindness. A Karen population has undergone recent positive selection for G6PD deficiency with extended long-range haplotypes around G6PD. Objectives To determine the association between G6PD deficiency and color blindness in a Karen population that lives in an area endemic for P. vivax and that is already known to display long-range haplotypes around G6PD because of the recent positive selection of the Mahidol G6PD deficiency allele. Method We examined the phenotypic association between G6PD deficiency and color blindness. Results Of 186 male participants successfully assessed for color blindness using the Ishihara 38 plates test, 10 (5.4%) were red–green color blind, while 1 individual was totally color blind. There was a nonsignificant trend toward negative association (repulsion) between G6PD deficiency and red–green color blindness; 34/35 individuals with the Mahidol variant of G6PD deficiency had normal vision, while 9 of the 10 red–green color blind individuals were G6PD normal. A single individual had both conditions. Conclusions Despite the long-range haplotype associated with G6PD deficiency in this population, color blindness is not informative in terms of predicting G6PD deficiency in this population. The most likely explanation is that there are multiple genetic causes of red–green color blindness.

In the Red: The Effects of Color on Investment Behavior

The visual communication of financial information is commonplace and involves numerous facets, including the use of color. At the same time, perception of color influences behavior. Through eight experiments, we show that using red color to represent financial data impacts individuals' risk preferences, expectations of future stock returns, and trading decisions. The effects are not present in colorblind individuals and are muted in China, where red represents prosperity. Other colors, including yellow and blue, do not generate the same effects. Overall, we demonstrate that simple perceptual processes influence complex investor behavior, which is important given society's increasing reliance on visual communication.

Neutral point testing of color vision in the domestic cat

Despite extensive study, the basic nature of feline spectral sensitivity is still unresolved. Most electrophysiological studies have demonstrated two photopic receptors within the cat's retina, one most sensitive to longer wavelengths near 560 nm and the other most sensitive to shorter wavelengths near 460 nm, providing the neuroretinal basis for dichromatic vision. A few studies, however, have detected a third photopic receptor most sensitive to medium wavelengths between 500 and 520 nm, overlapping in spectrally sensitivity with the feline scotopic receptor, that potentially could allow trichromatic vision. Indeed, one behavioral study has demonstrated trichromatic vision in cats, but a flaw within its experimental design raises the possibility that achromatic intensity cues might have allowed the accurate identification of medium wavelength targets. This study tested for a spectral neutral point in the domestic cat using a two-choice discrimination task. The positive targets were created using monochromatic light from various single wavelength light emitting diodes (LEDs) combined with a white light of variable intensity, while the negative targets were created using white light of variable intensity. Trials were performed with varying intensities of positive and negative targets, from brighter positive targets to brighter negative targets, to eliminate achromatic intensity cues. Two cats with prior experience with two-choice discrimination tasks, one male and one female, successfully discriminated monochromatic light from 456 nm to 497 nm and from 510 nm to 524 nm, but both failed to discriminate monochromatic light at 505 nm over multiple trials. These results provide strong evidence that cats are dichromatic with a neutral point near 505 nm. This neutral point is nearly identical to the neutral point of the human deuteuranope, making feline vision a more accurate a model for red-green colorblind individuals than normal trichromats.

“American” as a Proxy for “Whiteness”: Racial Color-Blindness in Everyday Life

This article discusses racial color-blindness as it relates to a modern strategy used by both Whites and People of Color (POC) to mask their discussions of race and privilege. People who endorse racial color-blindness tend to believe that race should not matter and currently does not matter in understanding individuals’ lived experiences. Therefore, racially color-blind individuals use strategies to justify their racial privilege and racist beliefs and attitudes. One such strategy is to use the term “American” as a proxy for “White” in describing instances of White privilege as norms and to hide discussions of race more generally. Study 1 findings show that there are many different socially constructed definitions for the term American. Study 2 findings reveal differences in definitions for American depending on an individual’s race and generational status.

Gazing behavior, choice and color of food: Does gazing behavior predict choice?

This study investigated the effect of food color on gazing behavior using eye-tracking technology and the correlation between gazing behavior and choice decision. Tobii T60 eye-tracker was used for analyzing the gazing behavior of consumers. Images of three different food products with three different colors each (yellow, green, pink) were used as stimuli. Seventy-three subjects were recruited; color blind individuals were excluded from the test. After the eye tracking procedure, the test persons had to decide which sample they preferred. Results show that the colors of the used food products significantly affected the gazing behavior and the choice. Fixation count and visit duration correlated significantly in a positive way with choice rate. This insight highlights the importance of visual attraction for the choosing behavior and it might open the chance to predict choice behavior measuring gazing behavior.

Potential use of natural pigments on laccase-based TTI Prototype: Substrate specificities and variations in Arrhenius activation energy

Non-toxic dyes and natural pigments were examined as potential substrates for a laccase-based time temperature integrator (TTI) prototype. Five compounds such as bromothymol blue (D1), methyl orange (D2), laccaic acid (P1), a pigment from bokbunja (Rubus coreanus) fruit (P2), and Gardenia blue pigment (P3) were all catalyzed, resulting in significant changes in color. CIE-Lab and ΔE appeared to have the most linear dependency on reaction time. Reaction rate constants, k, were estimated at 10–37°C with the coefficients of determination, R2, being the lowest at 0.94. The Arrhenius activation energies, Ea, were 42.6 66.1 kJ/mol depending on the substrate. The results show that alterations in Ea of this TTI is a very important finding in that Ea of the laccase-based TTI could be modulated with substrates to assess time-temperature history accurately and that a wide range of color compounds offer an opportunity for color-coded TTI to assure color blind individuals food safety.

Improved data visualization techniques for analyzing macromolecule structural changes

The empirical phase diagram (EPD) is a colored representation of overall structural integrity and conformational stability of macromolecules in response to various environmental perturbations. Numerous proteins and macromolecular complexes have been analyzed by EPDs to summarize results from large data sets from multiple biophysical techniques. The current EPD method suffers from a number of deficiencies including lack of a meaningful relationship between color and actual molecular features, difficulties in identifying contributions from individual techniques, and a limited ability to be interpreted by color-blind individuals. In this work, three improved data visualization approaches are proposed as techniques complementary to the EPD. The secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structural changes of multiple proteins as a function of environmental stress were first measured using circular dichroism, intrinsic fluorescence spectroscopy, and static light scattering, respectively. Data sets were then visualized as (1) RGB colors using three-index EPDs, (2) equiangular polygons using radar charts, and (3) human facial features using Chernoff face diagrams. Data as a function of temperature and pH for bovine serum albumin, aldolase, and chymotrypsin as well as candidate protein vaccine antigens including a serine threonine kinase protein (SP1732) and surface antigen A (SP1650) from S. pneumoniae and hemagglutinin from an H1N1 influenza virus are used to illustrate the advantages and disadvantages of each type of data visualization technique.

Genetic Characterization of the Biates of Saipung Village of Jaintia Hills District, Meghalaya

Genetic variation in the Biates of Saipung village was studied with the help of markers ABO and RH(D) blood groups, Phenylthiocarbamide (PTC) taste sensitivity and colour blindness. A total of 162 individuals were tested of which 81 were males and 81females. It was found that the present population is in genetic equilibrium with respect to the ABO blood group system. Out of 162 individuals tested, only two subjects (1.23%) were RH-negative. The frequency of colour blindness was 2.47%. The low frequency of Rh-negative blood group and colour blind individuals in Biate seems to be similar to other neighboring populations of Northeast India. In case of PTC taste sensitivity trait the frequencies for taster ( T) and the non-taster (t) alleles was calculated as 0.7278 ± 0.0014 and 0.2722 ± 0.0014, respectively. Biates when compared with the other population groups for the genetic markers observed for the present study fall nearer to the other neighbouring populations of north-east India.

Correlation and Cause When Inferring Attentional Guidance in the Rainforest and Beyond

Humans shift their eyes to sample the most important parts of the visual world. How do we know if it is worth looking at a certain location before we look there? An intuitively appealing answer to this question is that the brain may use a shortcut based on early visual processing to determine “salient” parts of the scene that are likely to be worth fixating. In the last decade, research scrutinizing this proposal (and driven principally by the Saliency Map model as described by Itti and Koch, 2000) has given rise to something of a deadlock between demonstrations that fixation correlates with bottom-up saliency in free viewing (Parkhurst et al., 2002), and experiments showing that eye guidance is dominated by top-down, cognitive control (e.g., Einhauser et al., 2008). The recent studies by Frey et al. (2011) take a novel approach that begins to address two major issues with such research. The first issue concerns the causal role of certain features in eye guidance. There are systematic differences between fixated and non-fixated locations in natural images, with frequently looked-at regions tending to have higher luminance and chromaticity and to contain edges (e.g., Tatler et al., 2005). However, it does not necessarily follow that these features actually cause fixation. Instead, it might be that saccades are guided by top-down processes (e.g., a desire to look at objects), and that salient features merely coincide with such regions. In other words, saliency might be a useful shortcut for computational models while telling us nothing about what the brain is actually doing. It is necessary, therefore, to move away from correlations between fixations and features and take an experimental approach (e.g., by manipulating the saliency of key objects: Foulsham and Underwood, 2007). Frey et al. (2011) modified the color content of their stimuli and report changes in fixation behavior with some modifications (eliminating red–green information) but not others (removing the blue–yellow channel). This is stronger evidence regarding the salient color features that are causally related to fixation. Frey et al. (2011) also take a different and ingenious approach by examining the impact of the observer – in this case their ability to perceive color in the normal way. If color features actually cause fixation in normal observers then color-blind individuals should not fixate in the same locations. Conversely, if color features merely coincide with semantic properties of the scene (e.g., because objects are colorful) then deuteranopes may behave the same. The fact that Frey et al. (2011) show both similarities (in the color features at fixation) and differences (in the timing of fixations to colored regions) shows that this is a powerful technique for pinning down causal influences of color in attentional guidance. Moreover, this avenue of research complements other work investigating the attention of atypical observers with object recognition problems who have normal low-level vision but lack higher-level scene semantics (Foulsham et al., 2009). Frey et al. (2011) also begin to address a second issue, which might be called an ecological problem: In what sorts of stimuli should we study visual attention? While traditionally most research has used simple stimuli, advances in modeling feature extraction in complex images means that there is now a large literature on eye movements in complex, color scenes. One of the advantages of using natural images is that they are associated with semantic information—gist and expectations about the environment to which humans are accustomed. Furthermore, the stimuli used by Frey et al. (2011) are arguably taken from the very same environment in which our trichromatic visual system evolved to identify ripening fruit in the rainforest. This offers the tantalizing prospect of linking the fundamentals of visual attention to both proximate mechanisms in the brain and distal causes of phylogeny and function in our evolutionary history. Converging evidence from correlational and experimental studies, from typical and atypical individuals, and from simple and more ecologically complex stimuli can therefore provide a more complete explanation of attention – in the rainforest and beyond.