Color In Special Education Research Articles

Factors associated with proportionality of representation of children of color in early childhood special education in Illinois

Globally, early childhood education is seen as a right for children and yet, while several nations have instituted universal early childhood education policies to ensure that all children have access to it, the United States faces several challenges. In addition to lacking a universal federal mandate for early childhood education, the United States’ implementation of its current educational policy surrounding early childhood (IDEA) may be inappropriate. Research indicates that children of color are often over-represented or under-represented in special education, including in early childhood settings. Research has yet to focus more specifically on exploring how far removed children of color are from proportionate representation in special education in their schools and which factors are associated with more proportionate representation of children of color in special education. The current study investigated early childhood centers in Illinois and found that the diversity of a school’s student body, the diversity of the district’s teaching staff, the educational attainment of the district’s teaching staff, and the geographical location are all associated with the proportionality of representation of children of color in special education in early childhood. Implications for administrators and future research directions are discussed.

Voices beyond the numbers: a systematic review of qualitative studies of disproportionality in special education

Researchers in the field of special education has voiced concerns about the disproportionality of diverse students identified for special education services for decades. However, most of the recent research has focused on showing this issue using quantitative data. The voices beyond the numbers are imperative in better understanding this decades long phenomenon. Unfortunately, these voices are rarely present within the context of disproportionality in special education. The present study reports a systematic review of qualitative articles to highlight findings in the literature to contextualize current quantitative data and provide a more representative picture of the phenomenon in the U.S. Results show the over and underrepresentation of students of color in special education according to the voices of educators, family members, and others supporting these students.

Special education teachers of color and their beliefs about dis/ability and race: Counter-stories of smartness and goodness

Teacher beliefs about race and dis/ability 1 are important in understanding how teachers educate and support students of color with dis/abilities. This is particularly critical because of the overrepresentation of students of color in special education, irrelevant curriculum, and poor post-school outcomes which continue to impact students of color with dis/abilities in US public schools. Using qualitative counter-stories of goodness and smartness, this study highlights the expressed beliefs of two special education teachers of color, Leena and Leonardo, who were completing a special education teaching credential program at a Hispanic Serving Institution (HSI) in Southern California. The teachers were asked to compose a series of short and long reflections as part of two courses centering dis/ability and race. They also participated in follow-up interviews in which they reflected on their beliefs and experiences with the intersections of dis/ability and race. Courses were intentionally restructured using Dis/ability Studies and Critical Race Theory (DisCrit), and analyses specifically focused on how participants were positioned through the framework of smartness and goodness. Findings revealed how the experiences of special education teachers of color across time and space were filled with examples of racism and ableism that shaped their beliefs and identities as teachers of color and teachers committed to racial and dis/ability justice. Each counter-story also highlights the challenges special education teachers of color face because of their experiences of multiple and intersecting oppressions.

Misunderstood and Mistreated: Students of Color in Special Education

The disproportionate representation of students of color in special education is a serious concern that has lasted for forty years. Research suggests that students of color are too often not identified accurately for special education and that the programs they are placed in are frequently poor in quality. This trend contributes to a less-than-optimal learning environment that lowers their chances for future success. Some of the factors that may contribute to this problem include poverty and inaccurate teacher perceptions. To reduce this problem, teachers can be trained to be culturally responsive and the public-school system can be improved so that students from low-income households receive better services.

How and Why Context Matters in the Study of Racial Disproportionality in Special Education: Toward a Critical Disability Education Policy Approach

ABSTRACT Racial disproportionality in special education is an ongoing injustice in schools in the United States. In this article, we investigate the key relationships among education policy, context, and racial disproportionality in special education. We examine this nexus by analyzing one U.S. school district’s response to federal citations for disproportionality in both the over-identification of students of color in special education and over-representation of students of color with disabilities being disciplined. Our findings demonstrate the important role of historical legacies of inequality and the limitations of technical approaches to equity oriented education policies. We end by offering a critical disability education policy approach that accounts for complex sociocultural contexts, attending to disability and its intersections, in an effort to move toward more just and equitable education policies.

Teacher Race and Racial Disparities in Special Education

The U.S. teacher population is predominantly White, yet research has not yet determined how teacher race might matter to the identification of students with disabilities. This study examines the role of teacher racial composition in special education service receipt. Findings show that schools’ proportion of teachers of color, net of all other factors, is associated with students’ increased odds of receiving special education services for all categories of disability, with the exception of emotional disturbance and autism spectrum disorder. These findings may reflect higher expectations of students held by teachers of color, which may lead to greater special education receipt for students who are not performing as well as expected. Although the effects do not vary by student race for most categories of disability, the evidence presented here suggests that increased representation of teachers of color ameliorates some underrepresentation of students of color in special education.

Disparities in the Enrollment and Timing of Special Education for Asian American and Pacific Islander Students

School districts in the United States are required to monitor the overrepresentation of students of color in special education, yet recent studies have challenged these trends and suggest students of color may be underrepresented for services guaranteed under federal law. Missing in many of these discussions on disproportionality are the needs of Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders (AAPIs), a group consistently underrepresented in special education. Previous studies, however, do not examine the vast heterogeneity in experiences among AAPIs and how special education trends may differ across AAPI ethnic subgroups. Using longitudinal data on 10 cohorts of 42,807 total kindergartners from a school district over a 10-year period, this study probes deeper into underrepresentation by disaggregating participation trends and the timing of services for 11 AAPI ethnic subgroups. Results indicate that most AAPI student groups are underrepresented in special education and first receive services later than White peers. These patterns remain even after accounting for student background, level of acculturation, and school fixed effects.

Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Learners in Special Education: English Learners

The multidimensional issue of the representation of diverse students in special education has been a persistent and challenging concern for decades. Overwhelmingly, research outlining racial and ethnic disproportionality data have historically demonstrated stability in the overrepresentation of students of color in special education. However, the growing number of culturally and linguistically diverse learners also requires an examination of the representation of English learners in special education as well. This article provides an overview of trends and issues in both underrepresentation and overrepresentation of English learners in special education. Contributing factors for variability, as well as recommendations for future research and improved practice are provided.

Disproportionate Representation of Asian Students in Special Education: A Systematic Review of the Literature

The disproportionate representation of students of color in special education is a critical issue within the field. To date, however, this issue has been positioned primarily through a Black–White binary. This review contended that Asian American students in the school system have been relatively ignored in terms of representation within special education. The current review aimed to recognize existing rationales for the over- or underidentification of Asian American students within special education. Using search criteria combinations of “Asian American” and “special education” and “disproportionality,” a total of 15 studies were included in this review. These studies indicated the prevalence of over- and underrepresentation of Asian American students for some special education categories. Importantly, the systematic search revealed that a gap still exists in scholarly work related to the disproportionate representation of Asian Americans within special education, particularly as it relates to Asian American student perspectives. The potential cultural implications for Asian American students, their teachers, and future research are emphasized.

Disproportionate Representation of Asian Students in Special Education: A Systematic Review of the Literature

The disproportionate representation of students of color in special education is a critical issue within the field. To date, however, this issue has been positioned primarily through a Black–White binary. This review contended that Asian American students in the school system have been relatively ignored in terms of representation within special education. The current review aimed to recognize existing rationales for the over- or underidentification of Asian American students within special education. Using search criteria combinations of “Asian American” and “special education” and “disproportionality,” a total of 15 studies were included in this review. These studies indicated the prevalence of over- and underrepresentation of Asian American students for some special education categories. Importantly, the systematic search revealed that a gap still exists in scholarly work related to the disproportionate representation of Asian Americans within special education, particularly as it relates to Asian Amer...

Prenatal Alcohol Exposure May Be Driving Some Violent Behavior

Back to table of contents Previous article Next article Professional NewsFull AccessPrenatal Alcohol Exposure May Be Driving Some Violent BehaviorAaron LevinAaron LevinSearch for more papers by this authorPublished Online:24 Mar 2016https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.pn.2016.4a6AbstractNeurodevelopmental disorders associated with prenatal alcohol exposure may lead to poor judgment and affect regulation, and in some cases violence, according to Carl Bell, M.D.The mass shootings that leap to public attention mask a larger, ongoing epidemic of day-to-day killings and gun violence, Carl Bell, M.D., a staff psychiatrist at Jackson Park Hospital in Chicago, told an audience gathered for the Washington Psychiatric Society’s Presidential Symposium on Violence Risk Reduction at St. Elizabeths Hospital in February.“Fetal alcohol exposure is a hidden epidemic in poor African-American communities,” comments Chicago psychiatrist Carl Bell, M.D. An easily available supplement has shown evidence of ameliorating symptoms, he said.Milbert O. Brown“The existing evidence regarding the incidence of urban gun homicide flies in the face of conventional media analysis and public beliefs, which tend to focus attention on the sensational,” Bell said. “The causes of urban youth gun violence are multidetermined and extraordinarily complex, so a multipronged strategy is likely to get the best results.”One focus of that strategy, Bell proposes, should be on decreasing the effects of fetal alcohol exposure—a factor he believes may be contributing to the violence on America’s streets.“Recent data indicate that a large proportion of urban children of color in special education, juvenile justice, foster care, and mental health clinics have histories of neurodevelopmental disorders—most likely due to fetal alcohol exposure,” he said. These children have poor judgment and affect regulation and are easily frustrated, and at least some become violent.The effects of alcohol on the etiology of violent behavior have likely been underestimated, asserted Bell. Up to half of the women who receive services at the hospital where Bell works don’t know when they are in the earliest stages of pregnancy and continue using alcohol, he said. “If you ask them, they’ll say they stopped drinking when they became pregnant, but what they mean is they stopped when they knew they were pregnant.”Bell has conducted several studies whose results suggest that roughly one-third of patients in Chicago’s poor communities may have a neurodevelopmental disorder associated with prenatal alcohol exposure. “Fetal alcohol exposure is a hidden epidemic in poor African-American communities ... ,” he wrote in the May 2014 issue of Psychiatric Services.Managing fetal alcohol exposure and its consequences is not hopeless, said Bell. Recent research has pointed to the value of phosphatidylcholine supplementation both for pregnant women and their children. A recent study in the American Journal of Psychiatry reported that high-dose oral phosphatidylcholine taken during pregnancy resulted in fewer attention problems and less social withdrawal in offspring.Researchers suspect the α7-nicotinic acetylcholine receptor gene CHRNA7, which “has been associated with schizophrenia, autism, and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder,” may play a role in this response, wrote Randal Ross, M.D., a professor of psychiatry and pediatrics at the University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, and colleagues in the article posted online December 7, 2015. “Maternal phosphatidylcholine treatment may, by increasing activation of the α7-nicotinic acetylcholine receptor, alter the development of behavior problems in early childhood that can presage later mental illness,” the authors wrote.“Choline supplementation can alter brain development following a developmental insult, and similar postnatal interventions may reduce the severity of some fetal alcohol effects,” said Bell. Other researchers have found that treating children aged 2.5 to 5 years with a nine-month course of choline improved scores on memory tests.Behavioral interventions have also proved useful, he said. Developing a community’s social fabric, encouraging adults to mentor youth, and offering programs to build social and emotional skills have proven to decrease risk-taking behaviors and youth gun violence.Too often, attempts to solve the problem have focused solely on risk factors and how to ameliorate them, said Bell.“But we must be smart enough to wrap at-risk youth in protective factors,” he said. “Public health interventions that focus on the protective factors that prevent the risk factors from becoming predictive factors are the recommended approaches.” ■“Perinatal Phosphatidylcholine Supplementation and Early Childhood Behavior Problems: Evidence for CHRNA7 Moderation” can be accessed here. “Fetal Alcohol Exposure Among African Americans” is available here. ISSUES NewArchived

Tracking Inequality 60 Years After Brown: Does Policy Legitimize the Racialization of Disability?

The Brown decision laid the foundation for accountability provisions in the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (1997 Education Act (2004) that require reporting of overrepresentation of students of color in special education. This article examines the issues surrounding this equity-focused legal reform that prioritized disproportionate representation. Drawing from interdisciplinary theories that target socio-historical and cultural underpinnings of power in a racially stratified society, we present a critique of federal policy implementation, with a particular focus on the lack of federal definitions and methods of reporting disproportionality. Using IDEA state compliance reports, we review states' definitions of “significant” disproportionality and methods of disproportionality calculations. We posit that federal compliance reporting on disproportionality limits meaningful approaches to addressing the inequities inherent in school systems.

Disabling Juvenile Justice

One of the field’s most enduring problems is the overrepresentation of students of color in special education. A less acknowledged challenge is the overrepresentation of students with disabilities in juvenile incarceration. Quantitative studies have documented the overrepresentation of students with disabilities in juvenile justice. Yet, little is known about the education they receive once they become incarcerated. This qualitative study examined the education of 10 young women of color labeled with emotional disabilities in the School-to-Prison Pipeline. Through in-depth interviews and observations, this study explored the following questions: (a) What processes and practices impact juvenile incarceration education for students with historically marginalized identities (e.g., disability, gender, race, culture)? (b) How is the education of young women of color with disabilities affected by these processes and practices? Findings illustrate how socializing processes and practices aimed at control and compliance constrain education in juvenile justice but also provide an opportunity to do better.

Challenging pre-service teachers’ understanding of the intersection of disability and cultural diversity

Despite America’s increasingly diverse classroom membership, new teachers, who continue to be primarily Caucasian middle-class females, are provided with few opportunities to develop a depth of understanding of cultures other than their own. To further complicate matters, many P-12 students are students determined to have disabilities. Since the inception of special education legislation in the 1970s, concerns were raised about the overrepresentation of students of color in special education (Dunn, 1968) and these concerns persist today (Donovan & Cross, 2009). In an effort to address these issues, the National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education Standards (NCATE, 2008) and individual state agencies such as the Colorado’s Department of Education (CDE), have outlined a number of performance-based standards and professional dispositions required of educators. This paper explores and evaluates a variety of learning activities we have used in teacher preparation with the intended outcome of developing our students’ culturally responsive teaching and supporting their understanding of the complexities involved with the overrepresentation of students of color in special education.

Why Are All the Black Kids Still in Special Education?Revisiting the Issue of Disproportionate Representation

The overrepresentation of students of color in special education continues to be a prevalent, disturbing, and heavily debated problem in this country. What remains is the reality that a large number of African American students continue to be referred and placed in special education programs. On the heels of 2 reports commissioned by the National Research Council (1982, 2002) specifically addressing the issue of disproportionate representation, it seems fitting to revisit this topic through the lens of an urban elementary school attempting to translate findings from recent and relevant research to build a culturally responsive system specifically aimed at reducing disproportionate representation.

Understanding and Addressing the Disproportionate Representation of Students of Color in Special Education

The disproportionate representation of students of color in special education is a critical challenge facing educators and school districts. This article helps educators understand and address this challenge by providing information on disproportionate representation and guidelines for delivering a wide range of effective culturally responsive services within the general education program. It also offers strategies that educators can use to continually assess their success at addressing disproportionate representation.

Professional Development for Culturally Responsive Instruction: A Promising Practice for Addressing the Disproportionate Representation of Students of Color in Special Education

This paper describes the implementation and outcomes of a teacher-directed professional development program designed to increase teachers' awareness of culturally influenced learning and behavior differences in the classroom. The impact of the project on teachers' conceptualization of teaching with a multicultural perspective and the resulting implications for instruction and referral practices was assessed.

Over-Identification of Students of Color in Special Education: A Critical Overview

The purpose of this article is to present an overview of the overrepresentation of students of color in special education programs. For this purpose, we outline background history on the problem and discuss its magnitude. We also identify several forces that shape this problem such as poverty, structural factors, instructional and assessment issues, and the cultural discontinuity between teachers and students. We conclude with a brief discussion about ways to address overrepresentation.