Color-blind Racial Attitudes Research Articles

Addressing the White problem critically: A latent profile analysis of racial attitudes

AbstractAdvancing racial justice requires changes in White people's critical consciousness, including understanding the historical, material, and cultural conditions that have given rise to and maintain racism and White supremacy on individual, interpersonal, and systemic levels. To effect such changes, we need to better understand White people's current racial attitudes and their relation to anti‐racist action. Consistent with the QuantCrit framework, this study explored White Americans’ (N = 531; mean age = 34.4; 60.8% female) racial attitudes using Latent Profile Analysis with indicators selected from measures categorized within four themes: empathic connection in cross‐racial relationships, affective awareness of white privilege, blatant colorblind racial attitudes, and structural awareness. LPA resulted in four profiles based on patterns in participant responses to indicator items: Uncritical, Ambivalent, Incongruous, and Critical racial attitudes. Analyses of demographic differences between profile members indicated that participants with higher levels of critical racial consciousness were more likely to be women, trans, or non‐heterosexual, and have more friendships with People of Color. Members of profiles with higher levels of critical reflection also had significantly higher scores on racial justice action outcomes.

Racial Colorblindness in Speech-Language Pathology Students

Purpose: Implicit racial biases have been documented across a variety of allied health professions and training programs. The purpose of this study was to examine implicit racial bias within speech-language pathology (SLP) students by evaluating their attitudes towards statements reflecting racial colorblindness. Method: Fifty-nine students currently enrolled in an SLP program completed the Color-Blind Racial Attitudes Scale (CoBRAS; Neville et al., 2000) via an online Qualtrics survey, comprised of three subscales: Racial Privilege, Institutional Discrimination, and Blatant Racial Issues. Results: Results suggested that although 67% do not endorse colorblind statements on the CoBRAS, 33% of the students either agreed with colorblind statements (18%) or indicated neither agreement nor disagreement with colorblind statements (15%). Colorblind statements related to Racial Privilege (e.g., Everyone who works hard, no matter what race they are, has an equal chance to become rich.) were rejected less frequently (55%) than statements related to Institutional Discrimination (68%; e.g., Racial and ethnic minorities in the U.S. have certain advantages because of the color of their skin.) or Blatant Racial Issues (79%; e.g., Racial problems in the US are rare, isolated situations.). Conclusion: Voluntary self-examination of implicit racial bias within any pre-professional training program is a difficult, but important step towards addressing issues of systemic racism prior to entering the field. This study is the first to do so within speech-language pathology. Although data indicating relatively high rejection of colorblind statements found in this study are promising, students did not uniformly reject colorblind statements. Such response variation provides a foundation to further educate SLP students about implicit bias and its potential to impact one’s cultural responsivity.

Fast Friends: A Quasi-Experimental Design Among Two Racially Diverse Student Populations

This exploratory study sought to determine if the Fast Friend intervention (Aron, Melinat, Aron, Vallone, & Bator, 1997) improves racial cognizance of cross-group dyads. Data were collected from freshmen (n=34) enrolled in a college of agriculture. The treatment and control groups included cross-group, same-sex, dyads composed of African American students and Caucasian students. In this quasi-experimental, nonequivalent comparison group, descriptive statistics revealed both the treatment and control participants failed to establish a difference between pretest/posttest and between control/treatment participants in the Implicit Theory of Intelligence Scale, Color Blind Racial Attitude Scale, and Communal Orientation Scale. However, results did indicate significance in the Collective Self-Esteem Scale among treatment group participants and control group participants over time. At the end of the study, a significant difference existed as treatment participants were more adaptive while the control was more maladaptive. Results indicate that engaged conversations among interracial groups over a short period of time does not have a large impact on cognizance, but makes substantial differences among perception of whom they feel comfortable talking to. Further research should be conducted to establish interventions that measure racial cognizance through longitudinal studies, cross-institutional studies, and an increased quantity of participants.

Parents' color-blind racial ideology and implicit racial attitudes predict children's race-based sympathy.

We examined the relation of White parents' color-blind racial attitudes (a global composite score and its subscales) and their implicit racial attitudes to their young children's race-based sympathy toward Black and White victims. One hundred and nighty non-Hispanic White children (54% boys, Mage = 7.13 years, SD = 0.92) reported their sympathy in response to short films depicting bullying toward White or Black children. Their primary caregivers' (mostly mothers') color-blind racial ideology (CBRI) was assessed through a questionnaire (reflecting global color blindness, as well as denial of institutional racism, White privilege, and blatant racial issues), and their implicit racial attitudes were assessed with a computerized test. Children's sympathy toward Black victims and their equitable sympathy (difference score toward Black vs. White victims) was predicted by parents' color blindness, implicit racial attitudes, and their interaction. Results indicated several interaction effects, such that parents' denial of blatant racial attitudes and global CBRI were negatively related to children's sympathy toward Black victims and equitable sympathy toward Black versus White victims, only when the parents held implicit racial attitudes that favored White people. In addition, parents' denial of White privilege was negatively related to children's sympathy toward Black victims. The findings are discussed in terms of potential ways to shape children's race-based sympathy and compassion, particularly with an eye toward ways White parents might socialize sympathy toward historically marginalized youth. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

The Anti-Racism Behavioral Inventory: A Validation Study

The current study extends the initial creation and validation of the Anti-Racism Behavioral Inventory (ARBI; Pieterse, Utsey & Miller, 2016), a measure designed to assess anti-racism awareness and behavior among Whites Americans. Given that the original measure was developed with a sample of graduate students in counseling psychology, the current study extends validation to a sample of White individuals who identify as anti-racism activists (N=153). Findings support the original bifactor factor model of the Anti-Racism Behavioral inventory (one general anti-racism behavior factor and three domain-specific factors: individual advocacy, awareness of racism, and institutional advocacy). Additional evidence for validity was supported through negative associations with measures of the color-blind racial attitudes, as well as positive associations with scores on the White Privilege Awareness Inventory. Implications of the findings for training and future research are discussed.

A national survey of dental hygiene faculty perspectives on diversity, equity, and inclusion.

To investigate potential unconscious bias among dental hygiene educators and identify baseline perceptions of race and racism. Dental hygiene programs in the USA were clustered into 4 geographic regions from which 2 programs were sampled from each region. The 20-item, Color-Blind Racial Attitudes Scale (CoBRAS) electronic survey was sent to educators from each of the selected programs in 2022. The CoBRAS instrument measures contemporary racism and stereotyping in 3 subcategories: Unawareness of Racial Privilege, Institutional Discrimination, and Blatant Racial Issues. Scores range from 20-120, with higher scores indicating elevated levels of denial of racism. Descriptive statistics and one-way ANOVA were performed. The level of significance was set to α=0.05. Of the 172 potential respondents, 89 (52%) completed all of the survey questions. The majority of the respondents were White, female and from the Northeast (74.2%, 93.3%, and 61.8% respectively). The mean CoBRAS score (55.73) indicated moderate levels of color-blind racial attitudes. Race was a significant variable in perceptions of racial dynamics and racism with statistically significant differences between groups by race and ethnicity as demonstrated by one-way ANOVA (F[6,82]=3.469, p=0.004). Moderate levels of color-blind racial attitudes among dental hygiene educators were found, indicating a presence of cognitive aspects of stereotyping related to race. The demographic data collected adds to the existing evidence of a lack of diversity among dental hygiene faculty.

Awareness of Racism Among Social Work Students in a Challenging Era

This study focused on understanding individual (e.g., political identity and alignment of social work core values with the Black Lives Matter movement and the All Lives Matter argument) and social environmental correlates (e.g., social network composition) of awareness of racism among social work students. A convenience sample of social work students (n=98) recruited from a major Midwest land grant university completed an online anonymous survey with questions covering individual characteristics, social network information, and attitudes toward social phenomena. The Color-Blind Racial Attitudes Scale was used to assess overall awareness of racism, White privilege, institutional racism, and blatant racism. Regression models were conducted to identify correlates of these domains of racial attitudes separately. Liberal political view identification and alignment of Black Lives Matter (BLM) movement with social work core values were associated with better awareness of racism across all domains; aligning All Lives Matter with social work core values was associated with unawareness of overall racism, institutional racism, and blatant racism. Finally, discussion on racial issues with network members was associated with better awareness of overall racism, White privilege, and blatant racism. Social work programs should facilitate inter-group dialogues to build consensus on countering racism. Discussions on the mission and the context of BLM and its opposition efforts should also be incorporated in the curriculum. Finally, more emphasis on the impact of institutional racism should be included into course activities to further discussion on such topics within students’ network.

Racial diversity and group decision‐making in a mock jury experiment

AbstractThe primary goal of this research was to determine whether the racial composition of a jury impacts the outcome and deliberation in a civil retail discrimination lawsuit. We presented a retail discrimination trial video to 30 separate mock juries. Of the 30 juries, 15 juries had 2 Black jurors, while the remaining 15 had no Black jurors (i.e., only White or White and Latinx participants). After watching the video, each mock jury was given 1 h to deliberate as if they were jurors deciding an actual case. Contrary to previous research, juries with Black jurors were no more likely to deliberate longer or consider more case facts. However, they were more likely to find for the plaintiff and award higher compensation. In addition, content analysis of the deliberation racial discourse revealed that some jurors espoused colorblind racial attitudes, minimizing the significance of race in this case and in society in general, and accusing the plaintiff of playing the “race card.” Other jurors encouraged understanding of the plaintiff and espoused non‐colorblind racial attitudes, recognizing the importance and damaging role of racism in American society. Implications for civil trials, jury selection, and racial discourse are discussed.

Assessing Color-Blind Racism in Nursing Students.

The nursing workforce does not mirror the demographics of the United States, contributing to health disparities related to race. The purpose of this study was to assess possible changes in racial bias among undergraduate nursing students. Students in their first ( n = 58) or fifth ( n = 50) semester completed the Color-Blind Racial Attitudes Scale via an online survey. Fifth-semester students reported significantly more racial bias than first-semester students. Further investigation revealed more influence of students' race: White students indicated greater color-blind attitudes than students of color. Recommendations for integrating multicultural curricula into nursing programs are included.

“It’s the Teacher’s Responsibility:” Examining Pre-service and In-service Teachers’ Responses to Racial Discrimination

ABSTRACT In K-12 settings, misunderstandings of racial dynamics and color-blind attitudes may stymie teachers from adequately addressing racial discrimination amongst students. This study qualitatively asked if, why, and how pre- and in-service teachers would hypothetically intervene on racial discrimination toward a Black student, and whether color-blind racial attitudes in teachers manifest in their intervention approaches. Findings suggest pre- and in-service educators intend to intervene on racial discrimination. However, the rationale and strategies for intervening often reflect color-blind or biased racial attitudes, suggesting the need for consultation professionals to support teachers in implementing more effective intervention strategies. Given the racial nature of this consultation need, the authors present the multicultural consultation framework as a potentially useful lens through which consultants can work with educators on discrimination intervention.

Factors Predicting Satisfaction With a Microaggression Workshop for School Personnel

Racial microaggressions, or subtle race-based insults are associated with negative consequences for receivers. Institutional racism in education directly influences the dissemination of these transgressions in schools, as school personnel may engage in microaggressive behavior toward each other and their students. Given recent calls to address racism, schools and districts may seek to implement trainings to improve school personnel’s understanding of these transgressions and their consequences. As part of the current study, we explored factors that might contribute to school personnel’s satisfaction with a microaggression training. Participants completed survey items to assess their colorblind racial attitudes, satisfaction with the workshop, and their perceptions surrounding the need for such trainings. We found that colorblind attitudes and perceptions of necessity predicted satisfaction. Implications and future directions for research are discussed. Impact Statement Calls to address racial injustice in response to the murders of George Floyd and Breonna Taylor during the summer of 2021 have produced an increase in requests for antiracism workshops and trainings across several organizations and professions. In K–12 schools, these trainings may be beneficial in helping school personnel learn about and address racial microaggressions (race-based insults), which may hinder students’ success. Although it is imperative that these conversations take place, it is equally important that we are able to understand how school personnel engage in these trainings to increase the likelihood that their behavior will change because of participation. The goal of this study was to understand factors that contribute to school personnel’s satisfaction with a microaggression training.

The Measurement of Racial Colorblindness.

Although there is consensus that the intergroup ideology of multiculturalism is negatively related to prejudice and that assimilation is positively related to prejudice, research regarding the relationship of racial colorblindness to prejudice has produced mixed results. We investigated whether these mixed results might stem from colorblindness being a multifaceted construct despite typically being treated as unidimensional. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses of items from existing measures revealed three factors-equality orientation, color evasion, and rejection of racial categorization-from which we created the Multidimensional Assessment of Racial Colorblindness (MARC). Four studies provided evidence for the reliability and construct validity of the MARC and found that its subscales were often differentially related to other variables, including prejudice. We also compared the MARC to another measure of colorblindness, the Color-Blind Racial Attitudes Scale (CoBRAS). We discuss the implications of racial colorblindness as a multifaceted construct.

Post or protest?: Factors influencing white women’s engagement in activism

ABSTRACT We investigated how engagement in activism among white women is predicted by their political efficacy, exposure to gendered microaggressions (i.e., verbal and/or nonverbal slights targeting a subordinate gender identity), and color-blind racial attitudes. We recruited 93 white undergraduate women for whom exposure to gendered microaggressions, color-blind racial attitudes, and political efficacy explained a significant proportion of variance in participants’ ratings of political activism on social media, although these predictors did not significantly explain a proportion of the variance in their in-person political activism (e.g., rally attendance). We discuss how these findings relate to the current literature, as well as implications and future directions.

Item Response Analysis, Invariance, and Validation of the Multicultural Personality Inventory

In a global community with increased immigration and rising sociocultural tensions, there is a need for psychometrically strong instruments that assess adjustment to increasingly culturally heterogeneous environments. The Multicultural Personality Inventory (MPI) is one such instrument, but previous studies have not reported the instrument’s invariance or item-level responses. The present study examined the psychometric properties of the MPI using item response theory, invariance analysis, and structural equation modeling with a sample of 1,194 participants. We found evidence for a 34-item instrument with a bifactor internal structure that demonstrated partial invariance across gender, race, and generational status. Evidence of concurrent and incremental validity of the MPI was established through predicted associations with acculturation, satisfaction with life, social dominance orientation, mental health, color-blind racial attitudes, and self-reported high school grade-point average, beyond any variance accounted for by Big Five variables.

Perceptions of Microaggressions and Color-Blind Racial Attitudes among College Students

We examined the relation between color-blind racial attitudes (i.e., the perspective that race should not and does not matter; Neville et al., 2007) and perceptions of microaggressions (i.e., identity-based insults) among students at Predominantly White Institutions, as the literature suggests that experiences with these transgressions may be heightened for Students of Color attending these universities. After completing survey items and being exposed to several vignettes, participants were asked to rate the degree to which they found the scenarios offensive or problematic. Results of the study suggest that individuals who hold stronger color-blind racial attitudes are less likely to perceive microaggressive situations as offensive. Implications for addressing microaggressions, particularly among white students in higher education holding color-blind attitudes are addressed.

White and non-White Australian mental health care practitioners’ desirable responding, cultural competence, and racial/ethnic attitudes

BackgroundRacial, ethnic, religious, and cultural diversity in Australia is rapidly increasing. Although Indigenous Australians account for only approximately 3.5% of the country’s population, over 50% of Australians were born overseas or have at least one migrant parent. Migration accounts for over 60% of Australia’s population growth, with migration from Asia, Sub-Saharan African and the Americas increasing by 500% in the last decade. Little is known about Australian mental health care practitioners’ attitudes toward this diversity and their level of cultural competence.AimGiven the relationship between practitioner cultural competence and the mental health outcomes of non-White clients, this study aimed to identify factors that influence non-White and White practitioners’ cultural competence.MethodsAn online questionnaire was completed by 139 Australian mental health practitioners. The measures included: the Balanced Inventory of Desirable Responding (BIDR); the Multicultural Counselling Inventory (MCI); and the Color-blind Racial Attitudes Scale (CoBRAS). Descriptive statistics were used to summarise participants’ demographic characteristics. One-way ANOVA and Kruskal–Wallis tests were conducted to identify between-group differences (non-White compared to White practitioners) in cultural competence and racial and ethnic blindness. Correlation analyses were conducted to determine the association between participants’ gender or age and cultural competence. Hierarchical multiple regression analysis was conducted to predict cultural competence.ResultsThe study demonstrates that non-White mental health practitioners are more culturally aware and have better multicultural counselling relationships with non-White people than their White counterparts. Higher MCI total scores (measuring cultural competence) were associated with older age, greater attendance of cultural competence-related trainings and increased awareness of general and pervasive racial and/or ethnic discrimination. Practitioners with higher MCI total scores were also likely to think more highly of themselves (e.g., have higher self-deceptive positive enhancement scores on the BIDR) than those with lower MCI total scores.ConclusionThe findings highlight that the current one-size-fits-all and skills-development approach to cultural competence training ignores the significant role that practitioner diversity and differences play. The recommendations from this study can inform clinical educators and supervisors about the importance of continuing professional development relevant to practitioners’ age, racial/ethnic background and practitioner engagement with prior cultural competence training.

Awareness, social cognition, and commitment: Developing a social justice orientation in psychology training programs.

This study investigates how the awareness of social inequities and racism may serve as a foundation for psychology trainees' social justice self-efficacy beliefs, outcome expectations, interests, and commitment. Using the social-cognitive justice developmental framework proposed by Miller et al. (2009), a total of 222 participants were recruited from accredited applied psychology programs across the United States. Participants completed measures assessing their levels of two dimensions of critical consciousness: Egalitarianism and awareness of inequality (Diemer et al., 2017), their colorblind racial attitudes (Neville et al., 2000), and their social justice self-efficacy, outcome expectations, interests, and commitment (Miller et al., 2009). A hypothesized path model was fit to the data. Alternative models were also considered. Results indicated that participants who endorsed egalitarianism and were more aware of social inequities showed greater awareness of racism and, in turn, were more likely to endorse a higher orientation and commitment to social justice. Limitations and implications for future research and training are discussed. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Profiles of Racial Socialization Messages from Mothers and Fathers and The Colorblind and Anti-Black Attitudes of Asian American Adolescents.

Racial equality requires coalitions and solidarity across racial groups, but there continues to be racially colorblind and anti-Black attitudes within the Asian American community, a diverse community consisting of individuals with ancestral origins in East, Southeast, and South Asia. However, there is limited research on the factors that contribute to the development of these attitudes among Asian Americans. Parents could potentially play an important role in perpetuating or challenging the colorblind and anti-Black messages that pervade U.S. society. Thus, the current study investigates how 309 Asian American adolescents’ (M age = 16.8; SD = 1.15; 50.5% female) perceptions of parents’ racial socialization messages about race and racism relate to the youth’s racial attitudes. Latent profiles of youth’s perceptions of mothers’ and fathers’ racial socialization messages and their associations with colorblind racial attitudes and anti-Black attitudes were examined. For mothers, three socialization profiles were identified: Race Avoidant, Race Hesitant, and Race Embracing; for fathers, two socialization profiles were identified: Race Avoidant and Race Embracing. Adolescents with Race Embracing mothers reported less anti-Black attitudes compared to those who had Race Hesitant mothers. For fathers, there were no differences among the profiles and anti-Black attitudes. However, surprisingly, adolescents with Race Embracing fathers were more likely to have colorblind racial attitudes compared to those with Race Avoidant fathers. The findings highlight the importance of racial socialization in the development of Asian American adolescents’ racial attitudes to continue fighting for interracial solidarity.

Support for evidence-informed opioid policies and interventions: The role of racial attitudes, political affiliation, and opioid stigma

Political affiliation, racial attitudes, and opioid stigma influence public support for public health responses to address opioid use disorders (OUD). Prior studies suggest public perceptions of the opioid epidemic are less racialized and less politically polarized than were public perceptions of the crack cocaine epidemic. Analyzing a cross-sectional, nationally representative sample (n = 1161 U.S. adults) from the October 2020 AmeriSpeak survey, we explored how political affiliation, racial attitudes (as captured in the Color-Blind Racial Attitudes Scale [CoBRAS]), and OUD stigma were associated with respondents' expressed views regarding four critical domains. Respondents with unfavorable attitudes towards Black Americans were less likely to support expanding Medicaid funding, increasing government spending to provide services for people living with OUD, and distributing naloxone for overdose prevention. Democratic Party affiliation was associated with greater support for all three of the above measures, and increased support for mandatory treatment, which may be seen as a substitute for more punitive interventions. Black respondents were also less likely to support expanding Medicaid funding, increasing government spending to provide services for people living with OUD, and of distributing naloxone. Our finding suggest that negative attitudes towards African-Americans and political differences remain important factors of public opinion on responding to the OUD epidemic, even after controlling for opioid stigma. Our findings also suggest that culturally-competent dialogue within politically conservative and Black communities may be important to engage public support for evidence-informed treatment and prevention.

Diversity Discourse as Racialized and Double-edged: Findings from a National Survey

The keyword diversity is common in contemporary U.S. culture, but it can refer to many forms of difference; questions remain about the meaning and consequences of “diversity,” especially regarding whether this concept is commonly recognized in the American imagination and how diversity discourse relates to racial hierarchy in the United States. We use nationally representative survey data to address these questions through a critical race theory lens. First, we conduct factor analysis upon three different items that ask participants to evaluate or characterize “diversity.” These three items are well-predicted by a single latent factor, and this factor proves distinct from possible confounders such as prejudicial attitudes, misgivings about immigration and demographic change, and color-blind racial attitudes. Second, we see that diversity attitudes have a double-edged relationship with other attitudes that relate to racial hierarchy in the United States. Using regressions, we find that positivity toward diversity predicts equitable, non-racist stances on several race-related attitudes such as support for affirmative action and acknowledgment of white privilege. On the contrary, positivity toward diversity is also associated with core cultural ideologies which normalize racial inequality and implicitly denigrate minorities, such as color-blind racism and meritocracy. Thus, our study establishes that a coherent and distinct recognition of diversity exists in the American imagination and that diversity discourse has a double-edged relationship with racial hierarchy.