Colombian Species Research Articles

First record of the stingless bee Tetragonisca buchwaldi (Friese, 1925) (Hymenoptera, Apidae, Meliponini) in Colombia

The stingless bee Tetragonisca buchwaldi (Friese, 1925) is documented in Ecuador (1925), Costa Rica (1962), and Panama (1983). This study presents new records for two provinces in Panama and the first-ever report of the species in Colombia. This last record was obtained in September 2022 in Chocó Department using pan traps, which were exposed inside the forest. These new records contribute to the general knowledge of Meliponini, mainly in the biogeographic Chocó region where these bees are undersampled.

Two new species of the genus Quindina Roewer, 1914 (Opiliones: Nomoclastidae) from Colombia: phylogenetic relationships and notes on their nest architecture

ABSTRACT Quindina Roewer, 1914 is a nomoclastid genus with 11 described species behaviourally characterised by its remarkable nest-building behaviour. In this paper we describe two new Colombian species of the genus from the western range of the Northern Andes, based on genital morphology and external characters. In addition, we explore their phylogenetic relationships using a phenotypic matrix with 96 characters, three newly proposed, and 55 terminals including all described species of Quindina and a wide outgroup sample across the suborder Laniatores. Quindina sanantonio sp. n. (type locality: Valle del Cauca, Santiago de Cali, San Antonio Forest) can be diagnosed by having two olive-green patches behind the ocularium and on the lateral portion of areas II and III, connected on the posterior margin of area III. Quindina horologium sp. n. (type locality: Risaralda, Santuario, Planes de San Rafael) can be diagnosed by having an hourglass-shaped dorsal pattern, beginning as two emerald-green patches next to the ocularium and continuing to the posterior margin of area III. Both species build nests without walls on the underside of leaves (ie flattened nest type), a previously unknown nest architecture for the genus. The phylogenetic analysis confirmed the monophyly of Quindina. The two new species, herein described, were recovered as basally branching within the genus. The inferred ancestral state for the nest architecture was the flattened nest type. We provide an updated key for the Colombian species of the genus Quindina and an updated distribution map. http://www.zoobank.org/urn:lsid:zoobank.org:pub:4C811186-3FAC-4F65-81BD-A5720513551E.

Knowledge shortfalls on amphibian diets in Colombia: Future trends and challenges

AbstractAmphibians are increasingly threatened, leading to growing concern about their key role in natural ecosystems globally as predators and essential consumers in food webs. Effective conservation plans are linked to up‐to‐date distributional and ecological information, but dietary knowledge is often underrepresented. This information is essential for understanding ecological requirements, changes in the species and populations, impacts of habitat modification, and developing conservation strategies. Here, we present the current knowledge on amphibian diets in Colombia, to determine (a) the number of species studied and their distribution across families and genera; (b) the temporal and regional patterns in number of articles on amphibian diets; and (c) the trends in topics studied associated with amphibian diets; and to offer (d) a qualitative description of amphibian diets and the methods used for stomach contents collection. We found 70 published studies on the diet of Colombian amphibians between the years 1914 and 2022, including 100 species (11.6% of Colombian species). The Andean region is the best represented, and the Amazon and Orinoco the least. The topics most frequently studied were prey items consumed and ontogeny, followed by systematics and taxonomy, and land‐use change impacts. Forty‐one prey items were consumed, where Coleoptera and Hymenoptera were the most common prey items. While the development of information on amphibian diets has recently increased, knowledge remains limited, with a significant information gap for many Colombian species in different regions. Conducting studies in little‐explored areas of the country, especially the Amazon, Orinoco, and Pacific regions, should have high priority. Investigations should be focused on Caudata and Gymnophiona, plus the anurans of the Hemiphractidae and Pipidae families that do not have diet records in Colombia. Indeed, we evidence the necessity to perform trophic network analysis to understand better the energy flow between species and the associated spatial, temporal, or functional trait changes.

The Gall Wasp Ophelimus migdanorum and Its Parasitoid Closterocerus chamaeleon on Eucalyptus globulus at Two Sites with Different Rainfall Parameters in Bogotá, Colombia.

As a pest, the gall wasp Ophelimus migdanorum poses a risk to several Eucalyptus species in Colombia. In the tropical Andes, its biological development and the damage it causes can be influenced by climate, particularly rainfall. In this regard, we examined gall phenology, population fluctuation, and leaf damage caused by O. migdanorum, and its parasitoid Closterocerus chamaeleon, over 5months at two sites with contrasting rainfall in peri-urban areas of Bogotá, Colombia. Gall phenology and foliar damage were assessed on 10 trees per site. We characterized gall phenology by assessing their size and color, wasps' developmental stages, as well as affected leaf area and gall density on the leaf blade. Additionally, the individuals found in five attraction traps at each site were quantified biweekly to record population fluctuations. The effect of rainfall on wasp frequency and gall density between sampling sites and dates was compared using the chi-square test, while the relationship with rainfall was evaluated using the Kruskal-Wallis test. Only females of the gall wasp and its parasitoid were observed during the study, displaying multivoltine behavior. Six developmental stages of the galls were differentiated, each characterized by distinct coloration. Drier microclimates favored gall size, wasps' development stage frequency, population trend, and foliar damage. The general trend indicated a greater abundance of the parasitoid C. chamaeleon compared to O. migdanorum. Our study suggests that O. migdanorum has a less damaging effect on E. globulus in areas with rainy microclimates.

Three new species of Apotropina Hendel, 1907 (Diptera: Chloropidae) of the Colombian Andean-Amazon cloud forest

The genus Apotropina Hendel is poorly known. In Colombia only one species registered. In this study, we describe three new species from Reserva Natural y Ecoturística La Ruidosa, Colombia: A. longicerci sp. nov., A. ruidosa sp. nov. and A. similis sp. nov. The three species are illustrated and identification key and occurrence map for all Colombian species are presented.

A new species of Platypterygius (Ophthalmosauridae) from the lower Barremian of Colombia and assessment of the species composition of the genus

In this paper, we describe a new ophthalmosaurid specimen found in the lower Barremian beds of the Paja Formation at Villa de Leiva, Boyacá, Colombia. The specimen represents a new species of Platypterygius, P. elsuntuoso sp. nov. defined by three unique features within the genus: a small ventral peg in the anterior ventral border of the extracondylar area of the basioccipital; a supratemporal groove in the quadrate; and a shallow neck at the base of the acellular cementum ring on the teeth root. In support of our taxonomic determination, in this contribution we also assess the species composition of the genus Platypterygius, comparing the known anatomy of the type species P. platydactylus with that of the other species previously assigned to the genus. We found that a great morphological affinity in the forelimb of the species P. americanus, P. australis, P. hercynicus, and P. sachicarum (lower Barremian to lower Cenomanian) with that of the type species (Aptian) is unquestionable and differentiate them from all other ophthalmosaurids. Three new diagnostic features (synapomorphies of the genus) support their inclusion in Platypterygius. Consequently, the genus name “Kyhytysuka”, recently proposed to differentiate P. sachicarum from the genus Platypterygius is here rejected. A careful comparison of the cranial characteristics of Platypterygius specimens preserving associated cranial and fin remains demonstrate that Platypterygius is a genus distinguishable from other ophthalmosaurids not only by a typical forelimb but also by a particular combination of skull features. In this context, the skull morphology of “Simbirskiasaurus” concurs with that defining Platypterygius and its minor differences are not sufficient to support its generic distinction. The morphological comparisons and our phylogenetic analysis show the new species P. elsuntuoso more closely related to the Colombian species P. sachicarum than to other species of Platypterygius. Given that the new species came from the lower Barremian and P. sachicarum came from the upper Barremian, the minor differences in dentition found between the two species suggest a speciation by adaptation to new food sources in the Cretaceous epicontinental sea of Colombia.

Molecular phylogenetics uncovers two new species in the genus Phyllobates (Anura, Dendrobatidae): the terrible frog gets two new sisters.

True poison-dart frogs (Phyllobates, Dendrobatidae) evolved the ability to secrete batrachotoxins, the most powerful alkaloids known to date. The genus comprises five species whose systematics, at first glance, appeared clear. The most derived clade would include two Colombian species (P.terribilis and P.bicolor) with the highest toxicity, the largest body size, and predominantly yellow body colouration. The other three species (P.aurotaenia, P.vittatus, and P.lugubris) are less toxic on average, have smaller size, and are predominantly black with bright dorsolateral stripes. Recent research has revealed the existence of two major lineages among the three Colombian species. The northern lineage appears to result from a complex evolutionary history, including perhaps introgression among yellow and black taxa. The southern lineage instead revealed the existence of new clades closely related to P.terribilis, black and yellow, that arguably deserve their recognition as new species. Here, available evidence is combined to support the erection of southern populations of P.aurotaenia as a new highly toxic species, sister to P.terribilis, and much closer to it than to any other yellow or black-bodied species, Phyllobatessamperi sp. nov. Their common ancestor is sister to an additional yellow species, which we also describe here as Phyllobatesbezosi sp. nov. Both new species can be externally diagnosed using colouration. Our previous and current analyses also suggest the existence of additional taxa and corroborate multiple transitions in colouration across these hypertoxic taxa.

Impact of climate change on the geographical distribution of ticks of public health significance in Colombia: Amblyomma ovale (Ixodida: Ixodidae), the Amblyomma maculatum (Ixodida: Ixodidae) complex and the Amblyomma cajennense (Ixodida: Ixodidae) complex.

Ticks of the Amblyomma maculatum (Ixodida Ixodidae) complex, the Amblyomma cajennense (Ixodida Ixodidae) complex and Amblyomma ovale (Ixodida Ixodidae) are known to transmit various Rickettsia species in Colombia, but their exact distribution is unknown. We built several models based on current climate and projected future climate changes using a maximum entropy approach. A total of 314 records of the A. cajennense complex (65.9%; n = 207), A. ovale (22.9%; n = 72), and the A. maculatum complex (11.1%; n = 35) were obtained. Amblyomma ovale has a current distribution in the Pacific, Caribbean and Andean regions and could be potentially found in the Amazon. Amblyomma maculatum has a current distribution in the Andean and could potentially be found in the Caribbean and Orinoco regions. Amblyomma mixtum can be found near the Caribbean Sea and in the Pacific region, and A. patinoi is likely to be found in the Andean region and the Caribbean. In 2070, it will be possible to find an expansion of A. ovale and A. maculatum and a decrease of A. mixtum and A. patinoi. The variables that best predict the distribution of these species are isothermality (small fluctuations in temperature) and annual precipitation. Amblyomma cajennense s.l and A. ovale, A. cajennese s.l and A. patinoi, as well as A. maculatum and A. patinoi, have an important environmental sympatry. Epidemiological and acarological surveillance is crucial to investigate rickettsiosis caused by R. parkeri in A. ovale regions, by R. rickettsii in A. patinoi and A. mixtum areas, and by R. parkeri s.s in A. maculatum regions.

A new species and a new record of Aulacus Jurine (Hymenoptera, Aulacidae) from the North Andean block with a key to Colombian species

A new species and a new record of Aulacus Jurine (Hymenoptera, Aulacidae) from the North Andean block with a key to Colombian species

New Variants in the Chloroplast Genome Sequence of Two Colombian Individuals of the Cedar Timber Species (Cedrela odorata L.), Using Long-Read Oxford Nanopore Technology

The plant species Cedrela odorata has been largely exploited in the timber industry due to the high demand for its wood. Therefore, C. odorata has been considered a vulnerable species since 1994, under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). C. odorata is a key timber species included in the management and conservation plans for the Amazon and Central American rainforests. These plans include the development of genetic and genomic resources to study local populations of the species in Colombia. In this study, two novel chloroplast (cp) genomes were assembled and annotated using the MinION long-read sequencing technology. The new cp genomes were screened for sequence variants (SVs), and a total of 16 SNPs were identified, presumably unique to populations from the Amazon region in Colombia. Comparative genomics with other reported cp genomes from different populations of C. odorata support the hypothesis of intraspecific diversity associated with their place of origin. These cp genome sequences of C. odorata from Colombian individuals represent valuable genomic resources for the species, suitable for identifying novel DNA fingerprinting and barcoding applications.

Plinian Core: A Data Specification for Species Pages in the Real World

Plinian Core (PliC), a standard in development by a Biodiversity Information Standards (TDWG) task group, is a set of vocabulary terms that can be used to describe different aspects of biological species information, including all kinds of properties or traits related to taxa—biological and non-biological. PliC incorporates terms pertaining to descriptions, legal aspects, conservation, management, uses, demographics, nomenclature, or related resources (Plinian Core Task Group 2021). Having a data specification is just a small part of what it takes to prepare and publish species information. The specification provides a structured way to describe species-related data, ensuring consistency and interoperability across different platforms and databases. Different aspects of Plinian Core and its development have been presented in the past (Pando 2018; Pando et al. 2022). In this contribution, we shift the focus out of the specification itself, to other key aspects of species information dissemination. Plinian Core has been already put to use in various real-world scenarios. Here we select three examples to present the most significant lessons learned: Cross-Nature Project This project developed a Resource Description Framework for PliC to create an ontology-based endpoint for the Species Information System of the Spanish Ministry for the Environment (EIDOS). It provides a structured framework for describing and integrating species data following the Linked Open Data principles. The system provides information for over 85,000 species. Biodiversity Catalogue of SiB Colombia This national catalogue provides information on the natural history, conservation, threats, and biology of Colombian species. Aimed at a broad audience, it maintains scientific rigor while being accessible to anyone interested in Colombia's biodiversity. PliC has been essential in this endeavor, enabling the inclusion of both highly structured technical information and rich, engaging textual descriptions for over 6,000 species. EncicloVida Developed by CONABIO, EncicloVida aims to publicize the Mexican biodiversity. The platform integrates biological species information on more than 114,000 species of plants, animals, fungi, bacteria, and protozoa that CONABIO has gathered through the National Information System on Biodiversity (SNIB) in collaboration with Mexican researchers. These implementations are based on the PliC Core abstract Model that is expressed as an XML Schema definitiion (XSD), and the supporting documentation is provided in the PliC Wiki. Automatic aggregation of species pages is challenging and often ineffective as differences in taxonomic treatments, or in local populations (either biological or otherwise: threat status, laws and regulations, etc.) frequently create inconsistencies or even render false information. Conversely, sharing a standard across projects offers immediate benefits, such as consistency of navigation and information, or the facility for sharing software solutions. Plinian Core terms, vocabularies and structure have been developed in collaboration with implementers and in response to real-world demands. That has resulted in a set of fairly large data specifications, but one flexible and easy to understand by domain experts who may not work comfortably with more technical approaches. Each implementation puts emphasis on different aspects, applying different levels of granularity depending on the requirements. This is done by choosing between "unstructured" terms (for low granularity) or the "atomized classes'' (for highly structured information). For instance, dispersal information can be recorded as a text block ("DispersalUnstructured") or using a set of specific terms: Purpose, DispersalMeans, StructureDisperse ("DispersalAtomized"). PliC reuses a number of terms from other standards (see Borrowed terms section) following a well-established best practice. Using XSD files as a basis, we link borrowed terms from external sources to their original specifications, which were also expressed as XSD files. This should provide consistency and reliability. However, this has proven to be problematic to maintain and validate, as links are broken and files changed. To keep the PliC XSD file valid, we opted for maintaining local copies of the XSD of the respective reused standards. We also aim to present some current and future developments of PliC, especially in the context of the Living Atlases community. Thus, we will explore other elements involved in sharing species information such as the Global Biodiversity Information Facility's Integrated Publishing Toolkit extensions, SPARQL Endpoints, Frictionless Data Packages, Research Object-Crates, and integration with Atlas of Living Australia modules.

First report of Carybdea xaymacana Conant, 1897 (Cnidaria, Cubozoa, Carybdeida) in Colombia

Carybdea xaymacana Conant, 1897 is a box jellyfish belonging to the family Carybdeidae and is currently recorded from the Mexican Caribbean (State of Quintana Roo), Puerto Rico, the Bahamas, Jamaica, Panama, and Venezuela. Here, we report for the first time the presence of this species in Colombia, based on collections made in three departments of the Colombian Caribbean. Documenting the extension in the distribution range of this species is of great importance due to its ecological role in regional ecosys-tems.

Modeling dominant height growth of teak plantations in the Caribbean region of Colombia

Identifying sites with adequate biological productivity is a critical factor in ensuring timber production and the profitability of forest-based investments. The productivity of forest sites is influenced by climatic, edaphic and topographic variables, as well as by silvicultural practices. Site index is a phytocentric method widely used to assess site productivity and its estimation is based on dominant height growth modeling. Teak is the fifth most planted forest species in Colombia, and its importance is associated with high economic returns and profitability. This study aims to model dominant height growth using the generalized algebraic difference approach for teak plantations established in the Caribbean region of Colombia. The Lundqvist-Korf model, in which the correlation of the residuals was handled with a continuous autoregressive specification of the first order, resulted in a satisfactory statistical estimation of the dominant height growth. The results indicate that in the Caribbean region of Colombia, productive sites for the establishment of teak plantations can be found as productive as in some tropical American countries and better than some sites in Asian countries. This suggests a potential for the expansion of teak plantations and forest-based investments in Colombia.

Standard Quality Characteristics and Efficacy of a New Third-Generation Antivenom Developed in Colombia Covering Micrurus spp. Venoms.

In Colombia, Micrurus snakebites are classified as severe according to the national clinical care guidelines and must be treated with specific antivenoms. Unfortunately, these types of antivenoms are scarce in certain areas of the country and are currently reported as an unavailable vital medicine. To address this issue, La Universidad de Antioquia, through its spin-off Tech Life Saving, is leading a project to develop third-generation polyvalent freeze-dried antivenom. The goal is to ensure access to this therapy, especially in rural and dispersed areas. This project aims to evaluate the physicochemical and preclinical parameters (standard quality characteristics) of a lab-scale anti-elapid antivenom batch. The antivenom is challenged against the venoms of several Micrurus species, including M. mipartitus, M. dumerilii, M. ancoralis, M. dissoleucus, M. lemniscatus, M. medemi, M. spixii, M. surinamensis, and M. isozonus, following the standard quality characteristics set by the World Health Organization (WHO). The antivenom demonstrates an appearance consistent with standards, 100% solubility within 4 min and 25 s, an extractable volume of 10.39 mL, a pH of 6.04, an albumin concentration of 0.377 mg/mL (equivalent to 1.22% of total protein), and a protein concentration of 30.97 mg/mL. Importantly, it maintains full integrity of its F(ab')2 fragments and exhibits purity over 98.5%. Furthermore, in mice toxicity evaluations, doses up to 15 mg/mouse show no toxic effects. The antivenom also demonstrates a significant recognition pattern against Micrurus venoms rich in phospholipase A2 (PLA2) content, as observed in M. dumerilii, M. dissoleucus, and M. isozonus. The effective dose 50 (ED50) indicates that a single vial (10 mL) can neutralize 2.33 mg of M. mipartitus venom and 3.99 mg of M. dumerilii venom. This new anti-elapid third-generation polyvalent and freeze-dried antivenom meets the physicochemical parameters set by the WHO and the regulators in Colombia. It demonstrates significant efficacy in neutralizing the venom of the most epidemiologically important Micrurus species in Colombia. Additionally, it recognizes seven other species of Micrurus venom with a higher affinity for venoms exhibiting PLA2 toxins. Fulfilling these parameters represents the first step toward proposing a new pharmacological alternative for treating snakebites in Colombia, particularly in dispersed rural areas, given that this antivenom is formulated as a freeze-dried product.

Preserving the spots: Jaguar (Panthera onca) distribution and priority conservation areas in Colombia.

The jaguar (Panthera onca) is a charismatic species considered Vulnerable in Colombia but yet largely unknown in the country. The species is mostly threatened by the continuous decline in its habitats, mostly derived from deforestation and habitat loss, additional to hunting and conflicts with humans. Thus, the future of jaguars in Colombia depends on protecting and recovering existing habitats. The aims of this study were to 1) evaluate jaguar distribution and identify the remnant patches of habitat in Colombia, 2) define an ecological connectivity network within the country, and 3) propose a priority areas portfolio for the conservation and recovery of jaguars. We used a presence background model for estimating species potential distribution and subsequently identified remaining habitat patches across the country based on land cover and species-specific ecological attributes. We then created an ecological connectivity network based on circuit theory and following a multi-criteria approach identified jaguar priority areas for conservation (JPCA) and recovery (JPRA). Jaguar potential distribution comprises 1103122.43 km2, from which 56.71% maintain suitable patches of potential habitat. We identified 960 corridors between remnant patches of natural or semi-natural vegetation. Based on the criteria, JPCAs with greater importance were identified in each of the five Colombian regions. JPRAs were located mainly towards the Andean and Caribbean regions. These JPCAs and JPRAs could serve as a guide for designing and implementing management strategies for the long-term conservation and recovery of the species in Colombia.

ASSESSING MECHANICAL PROPERTIES FOR STRUCTURAL UTILIZATION OF GUADUA ANGUSTIFOLIA KUNT

This research focuses on guadua cane, one of the most representative bamboo species in Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru. Its importance lies in the physical-mechanical characteristics of each cluster, which will be presented in the development of this research. The study includes results for different structural solicitations, such as compression, flexural, and tensile strength, characterizing it as a suitable material for use in construction, distinguishing itself from wood due to its rapid growth. This research work outlines the criteria used for the experimental analysis of the material. Laboratory tests are employed to determine the physical-mechanical characteristics of guadua bamboo, including compressive strength, flexural strength, material elasticity modulus, and natural moisture content. The resulting experimental values obtained through laboratory tests will be compared with the permissible values indicated by the Ecuadorian Construction Standard NEC–SE–GUADÚA. If the values are lower than the permissible ones, the permissible value is considered. This process allows the use of these results in the structural design of houses with guadua bamboo.

A revision of Lestidae Calvert, 1901 (Odonata: Zygoptera) from Colombia, with the first record of Lestes dichrostigma Calvert, 1909.

The cosmopolitan family Lestidae Calvert, 1901 has two widely distributed genera in the Americas: Archilestes Selys, 1862, and Lestes Leach, 1815. In Colombia, this family is represented by 11 species. In this study, we present a diagnosis of Lestidae species in Colombia based on a thorough review of the countrys main entomological collections. A total of 258 specimens representing ten species were examined. The species L. dichrostigma Calvert, 1909, is recorded for the first time. The presence of L. henshawi Calvert, 1907 is excluded, and the taxonomic status of L. sternalis (Navs, 1930) is discussed. Finally, we present distribution maps, photographs of Lestidae species, taxonomical important structures, and taxonomic keys for both males and females.

Population genetic structure in the critically endangered Crocodylus intermedius (Crocodilia: Crocodylidae): a shift in perspective for conservation actions in Colombia

Abstract Conservation actions for threatened species and populations aim to preserve their genetic diversity and prevent issues such as inbreeding or outbreeding depressions. This perspective has been incorporated into the management plans proposed for the critically endangered Orinoco crocodile (Crocodylus intermedius) in Colombia. A previous study, which used mitochondrial cytochrome b and cytochrome c oxidase subunit I, suggested that the in situ population management of the Orinoco crocodile in Colombia does not face genetic restrictions. In this research, we re-evaluated this proposal by using an expanded sampling and additional molecular markers (microsatellite nuclear DNA and the mitochondrial D-loop) that have successfully identified crucial information at the population level in other crocodilians. Our findings reveal, for the first time, a pattern of population structure consisting of three genetic clusters with geographical correspondence, matching three ecoregions in the Colombian Orinoco basin. This pattern might be a historical and current consequence of the ecological, bioclimatic, and/or geographical features of the ecoregion. Additionally, we examined the correspondence with the genetic clusters of the confiscated individuals that formed part of the initial population (F0) of the Colombian ex situ species population and successfully assigned most of them to one of these clusters. The genetically distinct clusters should be regarded as independent management units for conserving and managing the species in Colombia.

The influence of scale-dependent geodiversity on species distribution models in a biodiversity hotspot.

Improving models of species' distributions is essential for conservation, especially in light of global change. Species distribution models (SDMs) often rely on mean environmental conditions, yet species distributions are also a function of environmental heterogeneity and filtering acting at multiple spatial scales. Geodiversity, which we define as the variation of abiotic features and processes of Earth's entire geosphere (inclusive of climate), has potential to improve SDMs and conservation assessments, as they capture multiple abiotic dimensions of species niches, however they have not been sufficiently tested in SDMs. We tested a range of geodiversity variables computed at varying scales using climate and elevation data. We compared predictive performance of MaxEnt SDMs generated using CHELSA bioclimatic variables to those also including geodiversity variables for 31 mammalian species in Colombia. Results show the spatial grain of geodiversity variables affects SDM performance. Some variables consistently exhibited an increasing or decreasing trend in variable importance with spatial grain, showing slight scale-dependence and indicating that some geodiversity variables are more relevant at particular scales for some species. Incorporating geodiversity variables into SDMs, and doing so at the appropriate spatial scales, enhances the ability to model species-environment relationships, thereby contributing to the conservation and management of biodiversity. This article is part of the Theo Murphy meeting issue 'Geodiversity for science and society'.

Beyond hippos: Evidence of an introduced deer in Colombia

More than 18% of the cases of invasive mammals worldwide correspond to South America, including small rodents and large species such as deer and hippos. Among exotic mammals in Colombia, we can mention pigs (Sus scrofa), which are well established, mainly in the Orinoquía region of the country, and more recently, hippos (Hippopotamus amphibius) with a growing area of occurrence in the middle and lower basin of the Magdalena River in the inter-Andean zone. In May 2022, a spotted exotic deer was documented in the area based on direct and indirect observations (photographs and videos) of living individuals and a partial skeleton. The spotted pattern of the photographed adults (absent in native or other exotic deer) and the juvenile individuals and the shape of the antlers show that they are chitals (Axis axis), a species native to Asia. Compared with the white-tailed deer Odocoileus, the largest native deer species in Colombia, the Axis skeleton was one-third bigger, which corroborated the identification. According to local inhabitants’ communications, the number of Axis has increased, and groups of up to 18 individuals have been recorded. This is the first time that exotic deer have been documented in Colombia. Their presence may impact natural regeneration and competitively displace other native herbivores, which calls for the mitigation and control of the population since its establishment and dispersal can be cryptic.