Colombian Oil Research Articles

Liquidity and Profitability in the Colombian Oil and Natural Gas Extraction Sector: Analysis 2011 – 2021

The dynamics brought about by the adoption of the International Financial Reporting Standards have a direct impact on the various Colombian economic sectors; highlighting the Oil and Natural Gas Extraction sector as one of the most important in terms of wealth generation and exports of the nation. For this reason, the present study was directed in order to analyze the indicators of Liquidity and Profitability in the Colombian oil sector between 2011 and 2021. For the development of the study, a quantitative investigation is proposed with a documentary base where it is carried out an analysis of secondary sources from the Superintendence of Companies from which financial data of the Oil and Natural Gas Extraction sector in Colombia is taken, on which a descriptive processing is carried out and subsequently a correlational analysis between the liquidity and profitability indicators. The results show a level of correlation between the liquidity indicators, referring to the Current Ratio and Acid Test, and those of Profitability, Return on Total Assets, and Return on Equity. It is concluded that the correlation between these variables would be explained by the rates and sales volumes of said sector; which constantly carries out transactions of high sums of money accompanied by multiple policies and methods to ensure the transaction and thus not unbalance the receipt of income by the industry.

Colombian Oil Energy Security through a Framework of Risks and Vulnerabilities

The dynamics of oil markets are influenced by both international and local contexts, which determine their potential for success and sustainability. This article uses a conceptual methodology to analyze the characteristics that are present in successful energy markets. These characteristics can help identify inhibitors and barriers that may hinder the growth and development of the market. The analytical-propositive methodological design consists of three phases: firstly, a diagnosis is conducted to describe the costs associated with oil production, which will allow for the identification of economic characteristics. Secondly, attributes of the Colombian oil market are identified through a documentary and regulatory analysis. Finally, strategic guidelines are inferred, which can be used as inputs for the formulation of energy policies. The results highlight that sustainable development policies must involve both public and private actors to strengthen decision-making and the quality of processes, thereby providing greater scope.

Implementation of selective flocculation process in drilling operations to optimize per-flex fluid volume consumption and reduce the carbon footprint

One of the significant challenges faced by the oil and gas industry is the reduction of the carbon footprint associated with drilling operations. This paper presents a case study on the implementation of a selective flocculation process to optimize the consumption of PER-FLEX fluid, a high-performance water-based mud (WBM), during drilling operations. Conducted in a Colombian oil field, this study demonstrates how the adjustment of polymer concentration and injection rates in the flocculation process can reduce the need for fluid dilution, thereby decreasing water and chemical consumption, waste production, and CO2 equivalent (CO2 eq.) emissions. The findings highlight the effectiveness of selective flocculation in enhancing drilling fluid performance and contributing to sustainability goals.

Sampling Method to Estimate Fresh Fruit Bunch Production in Oil Palm Using Geostatistical Techniques

In oil palm cultivation, harvesting is a task that demands the most attention, resources, and accuracy. The logistics of harvesting activities, from bunch cutting through delivery to processing, are organized as a function of yield per hectare, and this planning depends on production samples collected from plantations to estimate the number of fresh fruit bunches that will be harvested per crop management unit. Conventionally, production is estimated through sampling grids, most commonly every five rows and every five palms (5 × 5), 7 × 7, or 10 × 10. Sampling density, however, does not typically result from a statistically rigorous method. Therefore, the objective of the present study was to define, using geostatistics, adequate sampling grids for estimating production. Specifically, seven lots in different Colombian oil palm-growing regions with planting ages between 5 and 9 years were analyzed, and the number of reproductive structures of all oil palms was recorded. From the semivariogram of each lot, different models were proposed, fitted, and cross-validated. For each sampling grid, all possible samples were simulated in the respective lots to determine the degree of accuracy in estimating oil palm production. The optimal sampling grids differed between lots, ranging from 3 × 3 to 15 × 15.

Impact of clay minerals on reservoir sandstone properties: comparative study in Colombian eastern cordillera and middle Magdalena valley basins

The aim of this study is to examine how mineralogy influences the petrophysical properties, particularly porosity and permeability, of potential sandstone reservoirs in Colombia. It seeks to comprehensively understand how the presence of clay minerals impacts the overall quality of hydrocarbon reservoirs in the country. Samples of sandstones from reservoirs at various outcrops in the Eastern Cordillera and Middle Magdalena Valley basins were collected. Detailed analysis of mineralogy and petrographic characteristics of the samples was conducted through various analytical techniques such as transmitted light microscopy, X-ray diffraction, and scanning electron microscopy. Porosity and permeability were measured using automated permeametry and porosimetry equipment. The predominant composition of the analyzed reservoir rocks comprises quartz (45-50%), feldspar (35-40%), and clays (10-20%). These rocks were categorized into two distinct groups based on their permeability (K) and porosity (Φ), ranging from 0.009 to 29.220 mD and 1.88 to 20.75%, respectively. The presence of illite correlated with a reduction in both porosity and permeability, highlighting its negative impact on reservoir quality. Conversely, an elevated concentration of kaolinite was associated with favorable porosity and permeability. Samples with feldspar sericitization demonstrated inferior hydrocarbon storage quality. This study provides a deeper understanding of how mineralogy affects the petrophysical properties of sandstone reservoirs in Colombia. These findings are crucial for guiding exploration and production strategies in the Colombian oil industry, especially in challenging geological environments like those studied.

A Rough Guide to the Oil Archive

The omnipresence of petroleum makes it an essential part of a history of the modern world. However, this ubiquity also presents a challenge as to which archival materials historians should use to tell this story. By using material gathered during fieldwork in the Colombian oil city of Barrancabermeja, this article aims to investigate the nature of the oil archive. Situated within the broader field of literature on the history of petroleum and archives, the investigation touches upon records in diverse archives, the urban fabric, and repositories of oil’s history to be found underground. By pinpointing such materials across Barrancabermeja, the article argues that the oil archive is not just found in historical documents but embedded in the landscape, in social practices, in human bodies, and even in the geology of the earth. To understand the deep-seated influence of oil, the article argues for the establishment of an interdisciplinary working group of the oil archive. Faced with the impending challenge of climate change and the long-lasting legacy of the fossil fuel age, such a group could provide evidence for how humanity got to this stage, point to different imaginaries of past and future, and clarify issues surrounding climate justice and responsibility.

Development of Novel Nanodetectors in Drilling Fluids To Identify the Contribution of Different Producing Zones in Naturally Fractured Carbonate Reservoirs: From the Laboratory to Field-Level Implementation

The objective of this research was to develop and incorporate nanodetectors (NDs) in drilling fluids to identify the contribution of the different producing zones in naturally fractured carbonate reservoirs. The NDs were designed to interact with the crude oil and release the active compound that allows for fluorescence emission for surface detection. Novel nanocapsules based on carbon quantum dots (CQDs) were synthesized using various nanomaterials as the core and soy lecithin as the shell. Four CQDs were used: CQD green, CQD light blue, CQD red, and CQD dark blue. CQD red was discarded as a result of high retention in calcium carbonate, and encapsulation was performed with the others to form ND1, ND2, and ND4, respectively. The technology was assured through compatibility tests with reservoir fluids, static efficiency tests, and static retention. NDs had sizes smaller than 75 nm. Also, solubility tests showed that the active compound was released upon contact with oil-based systems. The characterization of the drilling fluids indicated that properties, such as the yield point and plastic viscosity, remained the same in the presence of the ND, which allows for its use under field conditions and secure wellbore stability. The technology was successfully implemented in a Colombian oil field. Filed results showed correlations between the gas profiles, brittleness of the zone, open fractures, and concentration of nanodetectors, which allows for the conclusion of the effectiveness of the nanostructures for the detection of naturally fractured zones of the evaluated wells.

Labor productivity assessment of three different mechanized harvest systems in Colombian oil palm crops

Labor shortages are increasingly problematic in rural areas worldwide and, in particular, in the oil palm sector in Colombia. Therefore, alternative methods and systems that increase labor productivity, such as using machines for collecting and lifting fresh fruit bunches (FFB), are needed. In oil palm cultivation, the most labor-intensive process is harvesting. We aimed to assess the labor productivity (in t · FFB/person/day) of three harvesting systems using mechanized lifting systems (harvest A: manual cutting, manual harvesting using meshes, carts, and livestock and lifting using a hydraulic arm; harvest B: manual cutting, manual harvest using a tractor, and lifting using a side-turning container; and harvest C: manual cutting, mechanized harvest using a tractor-grabber, and lifting using a side-turning container). Two bunch density scenarios were considered. Data were collected from adult palm crops in three oil palm plantations in the Eastern Plains of Colombia, and similar crop yields were obtained. Labor productivity was 1.20–2.53 t · FFB/person/day depending on the FFB density and the harvest system. Finally, the cost per ton harvested was $ 8.9–$ 16.6 per ton, being lower in the systems that demanded fewer personnel. The highest labor productivity and the lowest cost per ton harvested were obtained for harvest C.

An analysis of engineering students' risk perception to support process safety learning process

Multidisciplinary teams often undertake engineering projects beyond their original discipline involving different kinds of risks. Risk perception is an inherent and embedded part of the decision-making process, which depends on the personal background and instinctive attitudes or behaviors. Process safety and risk analysis training for engineers, and education for engineering students, provide valuable tools seeking safer workplaces; however, personnel’s risk perception is commonly neglected. This paper analyzes the risk perception and appetite of undergraduate engineering students in Colombia based on a survey strategy and a weighted-approach following a Factor Analysis. The survey considered financial, social, physical, and professional risks, and four main reasons for risk-taking or risk-avoiding actions. The Factor Analysis allows us to classify the students tendency as risk-averse o risk-prone, and propose didactic teaching planning using a modular toolbox for process safety education, based on skills identified for junior engineers in Colombian Oil & Gas Industry. A total of 465 engineering students from 12 Colombian universities completed the survey in 2016. The results suggest that risk perception depends on the location, possible risk training, and accessible information. The obtained factors allow describing the students’ overall risk profiles, which can serve as an input for refining the content and curriculum content of current engineering programs regarding process safety. Improving the training of risk management in the engineering curriculum will benefit upcoming multidisciplinary teams in high-risk industries.

Effect of Temperature on a Vortex Reactor for Hydrodynamic Cavitation

The oil and gas sector has recently shown an interest in hydrodynamic cavitation for oil enhancement, as it allows reducing transportation and refinement costs. This work presents a fluid-dynamic study of Colombian oil at different temperatures passing through a vortex reactor. First, an experimental design was elaborated, establishing the temperature and quantity of the injected hydrogen donor as factors and the final viscosity of oil as the response. Then, a numerical model was developed in the Ansys Fluent software using multiphase models, where the required properties of the fluid were obtained via laboratory tests and the Aspen HYSYS software. The results obtained from numerical experimentation were analyzed, and it was observed that the final viscosity was less affected by the temperature than by the hydrogen donor. Moreover, numerical modeling showed an exponential relation between vapor generation and temperature. The experimental and numerical data were compared, and it was found that the temperatures established in the experimental design were not high enough to generate a significant amount of vapor, which is why the decrease in viscosity was lower.

Development and Evaluation from Laboratory to Field Trial of a Dual-Purpose Fracturing Nanofluid: Inhibition of Associated Formation Damage and Increasing Heavy Crude Oil Mobility.

This study aims to develop and evaluate fracturing nanofluids from the laboratory to the field trial with the dual purpose of increasing heavy crude oil mobility and reducing formation damage caused by the remaining fracturing fluid (FF). Two fumed silica nanoparticles of different sizes, and alumina nanoparticles were modified on the surface through basic and acidic treatments. The nanoparticles were characterized by transmission electron microscopy, dynamic light scattering, zeta potential and total acidity. The rheological behavior of the linear gel and the heavy crude oil after adding different chemical nature nanoparticles were measured at two concentrations of 100 and 1000 mg/L. Also, the contact angle assessed the alteration of the rock wettability. The nanoparticle with better performance was the raw fumed silica of 7 nm at 1000 mg/L. These were employed to prepare a fracturing nanofluid from a commercial FF. Both fluids were evaluated through their rheological behavior as a function of time at high pressure following the API RP39 test, and spontaneous imbibition tests were carried out to assess the FF’s capacity to modify the wettability of the porous media. It was possible to conclude that the inclusion of 7 nm commercial silica nanoparticles allowed obtaining a reduction of 10 and 20% in the two breakers used in the commercial fracture fluid formulation without altering the rheological properties of the system. Displacement tests were also performed on proppant and rock samples at reservoir conditions of overburden and pore pressures of 3200 and 1200 psi, respectively, while the temperature was set at 77 °C and the flow rate at 0.3 cm3/min. According to the effective oil permeability, a decrease of 31% in the damage was obtained. Based on these results, the fracturing nanofluid was selected and used in the first worldwide field application in a Colombian oil field with a basic sediment and water (BSW%) of 100 and without oil production. After two weeks of the hydraulic fracture operation, crude oil was produced. Finally, one year after this work, crude oil viscosity and BSW% kept showing reductions near 75% and 33%, respectively; and having passed two years, the cumulative incremental oil production is around 120,000 barrels.

Mathematical Modeling and Pilot Test Validation of Nanoparticles Injection in Heavy Hydrocarbon Reservoirs

Heavy-oil mobility in reservoir rocks can be improved, using nanotechnology, by reducing the viscosity of the oil and improving the rock wettability to a water-wet condition. Previous pilot studies in Colombian heavy oil fields reported that nanoparticles dispersed in an oleic carrier fluid (diesel) increased oil production rates between 120–150% higher than before the interventions. However, to optimally deploy a massive nanofluid intervention campaign in heavy oil fields, it is valuable to implement simulation tools that can help to understand the role of operational parameters, to design the operations and to monitor the performance. The simulator must account for nanoparticle transport, transfer, and retention dynamics, as well as their impact on viscosity reduction and wettability restoration. In this paper, we developed and solved, numerically, a 3D mathematical model describing the multiphase flow and interaction of the nanoparticles with oil, brine, and rock surface, leading to viscosity reduction and wettability restoration. The model is based on a multiphase pseudo-compositional formulation, coupled with mass balance equations, of nanoparticles dispersed in water, nanoparticles dispersed in oil, and nanoparticles retained on the rock surface. We simulated a pilot test study of a nanofluid stimulation done in a Colombian heavy oil field. The injection, soaking, and production stages were simulated using a 3D single-well formulation of the mathematical model. The comparison of simulation results with the pilot test results shows that the model reproduced the field observations before and after the stimulation. Simulations showed that viscosity reduction during the post-stimulation period is strongly related to the detachment rate of nanoparticles. Simulation indicates that the recovery mechanism of the nanofluid stimulation is initially governed by viscosity reduction and wettability alteration. At latter times, wettability alteration is the main recovery mechanism. The nanoparticles transferred to the residual water promote the wettability alteration to a water wet condition. The model can be used to design field deployments of nanofluid interventions in heavy oil reservoirs.

Technical and Environmental Feasibility Study of the Co-Production of Crude Oil and Electrical Energy from Geothermal Resources: First Field Trial in Colombia

In the oil and gas industry, there has not been a consistent, concerted effort to reduce global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions across the supply chain. In addressing this challenge, this study evaluates the potential GHG emissions reduction that may be realized through deployment of a geothermal power co-production system in two Colombian oil fields, compared to a base case where energy needs are derived through non-renewable sources such as gas and diesel. These geothermal power co-production systems make use of organic Rankine cycle (ORC) engines to convert the heat from produced oilfield fluids into electrical energy. The energy potential of this resource is evaluated through the exergy concept, and a life cycle analysis is implemented to calculate the carbon footprint using the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 2013 methodology. In the two oil fields of interest, OFA and OFB, the results show a maximum potential energy production of 2260 kWe for OFA and 657 kWe for OFB. The co-production of crude oil and electrical energy from geothermal resources suggests a possible a carbon footprint reduction of 19% and 11% for OFA and OFB, respectively, when compared to conventional power systems. In addition, four emissions scenarios are assessed where the current energy sources in these oil fields are substituted by gas, diesel, co-generated geothermal power, or a combination of the three while maintaining the average power output in each field. The highest carbon footprint reduction is found in Scenario 1, which replaces 100% of the liquid fuel consumption with purchased gas (gas provided by a third party and treated outside the system’s limits), thereby achieving carbon footprint reductions up to 54% for OFB. This research opens the prospect for the use of renewable energies in the oil and gas industry.

Optimal waterflooding management using an embedded predictive analytical model

In the petroleum industry, there is an ever-increasing interest in oil recovery processes with high hydrocarbon extraction rates. One of the most common oil recovery processes is waterflooding, which involves the injection of water into a reservoir. This process is often challenging, as there is uncertainty in the reservoir’s properties. In this paper, we propose an optimal waterflooding management methodology for setting the producer and injector wells conditions to maximize the net present value (NPV). Our methodology integrates a predictive analytical model, which models the reservoir performance and forecasts the production rates based on the producer and injector well operating conditions. We applied the methodology in an illustrative example with rock and fluid properties representative from a Colombian oil field. We compared the proposed methodology against two benchmark scenarios in which the bottom-hole pressure of the producer wells is kept low and constant over time, as it is a common operational practice in the oil fields. With the proposed methodology, the profit increases by 27.02%, the oil recovery factor increases by 12%, and the water cut reduces by 4%, over a ten-year planning horizon.

Assessing the labor productivity of two methods of artificial pollination in oil palm crops from Colombia

Oil palm interspecific hybrids Elaeis oleífera × Elaeis guineensis (O × G) are grown across approximately 68,000 hectares in Colombia. To address the limited natural pollination capacity of O × G hybrids and the difficulties associated with assisted pollination regarding the timing of E. guineensis pollen application, the Colombian Oil Palm Research Center (Cenipalma) conducted studies on induction of parthenocarpic fruits. Cenipalma confirmed that application of 1,200 ppm of 1-naphthaleneacetic acid (NAA) at different phenological stages enabled the formation of parthenocarpic fruits. This technological advance was termed artificial pollination. This paper presents the results from a research study aimed at assessing the labor productivity for two methods of NAA application (NAA in solid mixture and NAA in liquid suspension). From a methodological standpoint, a time and motion study was conducted to assess labor productivity for each NAA application method, with time data collected using the software Cybertracker on a mobile platform (smartphone). The results indicated that a worker can cover 3.9 hectares in a working day and sprinkle 303 inflorescences in a working day when applying NAA in solid mixture. On the other hand, when applying NAA in liquid suspension, the worker can cover 3.2 hectares and sprinkle 315 inflorescences (i.e. in a working day).

Experimental Study on the Effect of Temperature on the Mechanical Properties of Unconsolidated Silty Sandstones

Hydrocarbon reservoirs can be subjected to temperature changes due to different processes during production. Heat injection has become an advantageous method to produce heavy oils in Canada and Venezuela because it increases oil recovery. The heat reduces oil viscosity and oil flows easily. Colombia has significant heavy oil reserves in unconsolidated silty sandstones. It is important to understand the mechanical behavior of these reservoirs in thermal recovery conditions (temperature and effective stress). The reconstituted samples from a Colombian heavy oil outcrop were evaluated using a high-temperature and high-pressure triaxial cell. Twelve isotropically consolidated drained triaxial tests were conducted at three different effective stresses (0.4, 4.0, and 8.2 MPa) and a temperature range from 50 to 230 °C to represent the initial and thermal recovery conditions, and obtain parameters, such as Young’s and Bulk moduli, internal friction angle, and cohesion. The samples at higher confining stress (4.0 and 8.2 MPa) were under contraction, while samples at lower confining stress (0.4 MPa) were under dilation. The stiffness increased as the confining stress increased and decreased as temperature increased, and the strength properties significantly decreased as temperature increased. Finally, the Colombian samples exhibited low friction angles when compared to clean sandstones as Canadian sands.

Implementation of Tite Liner technique for maintenance and rehabilitation of a Colombian oil pipeline

One of the greatest challenges for petrochemical industry is corrosion prevention, mitigation and control, a phenomenon that generates a high negative impact due to materials degradation and that in recent years has increased as a result of multiphase fluids processing. Thus, there are different mechanisms of damage by internal corrosion that are generated during transport of multiphase fluids with high content of corrosive agents such as carbon dioxide, solid particles and sediments increased because of transport conditions. The technique Tite Liner was used for maintenance and repair of a Colombian oil pipeline with severe integrity problems. Equally, design and tuning of physical and chemical properties of the coating material was carried out, since they remained unchanged during thermofusion welding process, the initial compression for insertion in the system, the subsequent expansion to fit the pipeline internal dimensions and the system start up at high pressure. The experimental analysis displayed an improvement in the operational conditions of the line. This led to a decrease in the operating expenses of the pipeline, directing those assets in the physical recovery of other industrial equipment inherent to the hydrocarbon transportation process.

An Integrated Disease Management of Oil Palms Affected by Bud Rot Results in Shorter Recovery Times

Bud rot is a limiting disease that affects most oil palm crops destroying thousands of hectares in Latin America. Bud rot (BR) is caused by the oomycete Phytophthora palmivora (Butler). Integrated disease management (IDM) technology has been used to control the disease, which slows down the progress of the disease, allowing palm recovery. However, the effect of this technology on the recovery speed of treated palms is not well known. We studied the time taken for palm recovery from BR under the integrated management approach. The study was carried out on 21 oil palm commercial cultivars dura × pisifera (D × P) and O × G hybrids affected by BR in the Colombian oil palm Central Zone. The analysis included different recovery times (RT), the severity degree, time of the year (wet or dry season), number of reinfections, and cultivar. The RT of bud rot-affected palms ranges from 103 to 315 days, with an average of 202.8 days when an IDM is used. RT was lower than that reported in the diseased palms without IDM (540 days). According to the severity degree, the RT lasted 202 days for severity degree 1, 198 days for severity degree 2, and 222 with severity degree 3 and 4. In comparison, there was no significant difference between dry and rainy seasons in RT. Differences between cultivars were found; however, under IDM, all cultivars showed low RT. The IDM has a positive impact in reducing the RT to BR. Low RT has indirect effects minimizing potential yield losses, improving the number of successfully recovered palms, and reducing the risk of disease dissemination.

Semi-Implicit Finite Volume Procedure for Compositional Subsurface Flow Simulation in Highly Anisotropic Porous Media

Subsurface multiphase flow in porous media simulation is extensively used in many disciplines. Large meshes with non-orthogonalities (e.g., corner point geometries) and full tensor highly anisotropy ratios are usually required for subsurface flow applications. Nonetheless, simulations using two-point flux approximations (TPFA) fail to accurately calculate fluxes in these types of meshes. Several simulators account for non-orthogonal meshes, but their discretization method is usually non-conservative. In this work, we propose a semi-implicit procedure for general compositional flow simulation in highly anisotropic porous media as an extension of TPFA. This procedure accounts for non-orthogonalities by adding corrections to residual in the Newton-Raphson method. Our semi-implicit formulation poses the guideline for FlowTraM (Flow and Transport Modeller) implementation for research and industry subsurface purposes. We validated FlowTraM with a non-orthogonal variation of the Third SPE Comparative Solution Project case. Our model is used to successfully simulating a real Colombian oil field.

Biofilm formation and its effects on microbiologically influenced corrosion of carbon steel in oilfield injection water via electrochemical techniques and scanning electron microscopy

In this study, changes in the electrochemical conditions of oil fields caused by biofilms with sulfate-reducing bacteria have been studied as they promote localized pitting damage, reservoir souring problems, and many other processes including well plugging that lead to increased production costs. Biofilm formation and its effects on 1020 carbon steel surfaces were evaluated in a discontinuous electrochemical reactor by using a bacterial consortium isolated from the injection water of a Colombian oil field. Sulfide concentration and pH values were observed to decrease, which was consistent with the exponential planktonic sulfate-reducing bacterial growth. The formation of a biofilm that adheres to a porous layer of corrosion products was identified using scanning electron microscopy and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy. The morphology of the films revealed the presence of the biofilm and corrosion product crystals. Open circuit potential presented a negative shift in the potential during the first 24 h in a biotic cell. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy showed a change in the behavior of the resistive zone for both systems, a charge transfer trend in the abiotic cell, and a transformation of the charge transfer process to a diffusive process in the biotic cell after 48 h. The polarization resistance showed its lowest resistivity 74.95 Ω·cm−2 during the first 48 h, while the corrosion rate was estimated as 3.37 mpy. This research contributes to the understanding of corrosion mechanisms in the metal-solution interface via detailed monitoring of biofilm growth.