Colombian Authorities Research Articles

The European Union's support of the implementation of the peace process in Colombia

AbstractThe Peace Agreement in Colombia signed on September 27, 2016 ended one of the deadliest armed conflicts in Latin America, which lasted for half a century. The agreement is an effective peacemaking and peacebuilding model because it tackles the conflict's root causes and the process is led by Colombians. The actors of the conflict perceived the international community and the European Union's support as extremely positive because it remained consistent, combined political and financial support, and supported Colombian‐led policies. The EU's support for the peace process is also an excellent example of a match between the Colombia's demands for support and the tailor‐made support offered by the EU. Moving forward, key challenges are for Colombian authorities to continue accelerating the agreement's implementation—instead of reinventing the wheel after each presidential election—and for the international community to continue providing consistent political and financial support while prioritizing empowerment of local actors.

Multas al tráfico ilegal de fauna silvestre: ¿Una sanción difícil de imponer en Colombia?

This research aimed to identify the causes of the low imposition of fines on the illegal trade of wild fauna in Colombia, and to identify how much of the responsibility falls on the current methodology that Colombian environmental authorities must use to calculate these fines (i.e., “Methodology for the Calculation of Fines for Infringement of the Environmental Normative”). For this purpose, a survey was applied to public officials belonging to Colombian environmental authorities. The results revealed that these entities have several reasons for not imposing fines on the illegal trade of wild fauna. The most important cause is the fact that the referred methodology does not serve the purpose of estimating fines on this illicit activity, since its variable “Degree of environmental affectation” was not designed to be calculated on fauna. This impossibility of calculating fines on the illegal trade of wild fauna has generated two types of behaviors in Colombian environmental authorities: 1) some have refrained from imposing fines on this illicit activity (thus impeding a deterrent effect); and 2) others have modified the methodology (thus breaching the principle of legality), in order to be able to the calculate the fines in the case of this illicit activity. Therefore, given that neither of these two behaviors is suitable, this research calls for the Government of Colombia to enact a new or modified methodology to calculate fines for environmental infringements that adjusts to the characteristics and environmental affectations of the illegal trade of wild.

The HIV epidemic in Colombia: spatial and temporal trends analysis

BackgroundColombia has the fourth highest incidence rate of HIV/AIDS among all Latin American countries and it has been increasing since the 1980s. However, the number of studies that addresses this trend is limited. Here, we employed spatial and temporal trend analyses to study the behaviour of the epidemic in the Colombian territory.MethodsOur sample included 72,994 cases of HIV/AIDS and 21,898 AIDS-related deaths reported to the National Ministry of Health between 2008 and 2016. We employed the joinpoint regression model to analyse the annual HIV/AIDS incidence and AIDS mortality rates. In the spatial analysis, we used univariate autocorrelation techniques and the Kernel density estimator.ResultsWhile the HIV/AIDS incidence had an increasing trend in Colombia, the AIDS mortality rate was stable. HIV/AIDS incidence and AIDS mortality showed a downward trend in the 0–14 age group. An upward trend was observed for HIV/AIDS incidence in people older than 15 years and with the highest trend in the 65 years and above group. AIDS mortality showed an increasing trend among people aged 65 years or older. The comparison between the sexes showed an upward trend of HIV/AIDS incidence in all age groups and AIDS-mortality rates in 65 years and above in men, while in women, the incidence was upward among those aged 45 years and above, and concerning the AIDS-mortality rate in the 45–64 group. The high–high clusters of HIV/AIDS incidence and AIDS mortality were located in the Andean and Caribbean regions.ConclusionOur study found an upward trend in HIV/AIDS incidence and a stable trend in the AIDS mortality rate in Colombia. The downward trend in HIV/AIDS incidence and AIDS mortality rate in the 0–14 age group reflects the downwards mother-to-child HIV transmission. The upward trend in HIV/AIDS incidence in older women and AIDS mortality in younger women rates, compared with men, may be due to late diagnosis and treatment. The Caribbean and the ‘coffee belt’ regions were the most impacted by the HIV epidemic, most likely due to sexual tourism. Our results provide crucial information that may help Colombian health authorities fight HIV transmission.

A hippo in the room: Predicting the persistence and dispersion of an invasive mega-vertebrate in Colombia, South America

Biological invasions are a big concern due to their potential to impact ecosystems, as well as local people. The hippo Hippopotamus amphibius, native to Africa, has invaded extensive areas of the Magdalena River basin (Colombia) over the past decades, and has been considered the largest invasive animal in the world. Here, we propose the use of two approaches of predictive modeling, in order to guide recommendations for the management of this biological invasion. First, we developed a population viability analysis (PVA) to simulate a hypothetical population growth under different management scenarios. Next, we explored the potential invasion area under future climate change scenarios throughout ecological niche modeling analyses. PVA models predicted that in the absence of an intense culling/hunting pressure, the population size will continue to steadily increase, which is consistent with the population growth observed during the last 20 years. Furthermore, our static and dynamic habitat suitability projections suggested that without dispersal limiting factors, potential colonization habitat for hippos may become very extensive across the landscape and can be favored by climate change in the future. Therefore, our findings show the urgent need of taking critical management decisions by the Colombian authorities, which should be focused on limiting the hippos' population growth and expansion. Ignoring cost-benefit considerations for the control of this invasive species may have unexpected and long-term social and ecological implications. However, the proposal of a course of action can become controversial when the species has a charismatic value for the society, regardless of its ecological or social impact.

El Coco Does Not Frighten Anymore: ICC Scrutiny and State Cooperation in Colombia

Abstract The preliminary examination of Colombia is widely regarded as a successful instance of positive complementarity. Under the watchful eye of the Office of the Prosecutor (OTP), Colombian authorities have implemented comprehensive reforms and negotiated peace with the country’s main rebellion. That said, how much credit can the International Criminal Court (ICC) claim for these outcomes? And how did ICC–state relations develop over time? Drawing on in-person interviews carried out during a research trip to Bogotá, this article conducts a within-case analysis of the situation of Colombia over fourteen years (2004–18), seeking to explore the motives underlying state compliance with ICC treaty obligations and trace the evolution of ICC–state relations throughout two consecutive administrations of opposite political color. Unsurprisingly, state elites and transitional justice experts push back against the idea that the OTP has held state authorities accountable to domestic and international legal obligations through its lasting monitoring and involvement in internal affairs. Besides, while participants in this study agree on the timeliness of ICC intervention, they are split on their assessments of the Court’s performance. Finally, interviewees tend to agree that, upon giving ‘green light’ to the finalized peace accords in early September 2016, the ICC has at best a marginal role in Colombia’s politics..

Recomendaciones de la Asociación Colombiana de Medicina del Sueño para el ejercicio de la medicina del sueño en Colombia durante la pandemia por COVID-19

El lavado de manos frecuente, el uso obligatorio de mascarilla por parte de la población general en sitios públicos, el distanciamiento físico y social, y el confinamiento obligatorio de la mayoría de la población en sus casas son las medidas que hasta el momento han ayudado a frenar la propagación del nuevo coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2), causante de la actual pandemia por COVID-19. Sin embargo, la adopción de algunas de estas medidas ha generado retraso en el diagnóstico y tratamiento de diferentes enfermedades, incluyendo los trastornos del sueño, por lo que es urgente que los especialistas en medicina del sueño y los centros de sueño retomen sus actividades gradualmente, siempre que se implementen estrictos protocolos de bioseguridad que mitiguen el riesgo de contagio.En este contexto, y con el fin de ayudar a los somnólogos a reabrir los centros de sueño y reanudar los procedimientos allí realizados, la Asociación Colombiana de Medicina del Sueño propone en la presente reflexión una serie de recomendaciones para tener en cuenta durante el proceso de reactivación. Estas recomendaciones se basan en las estrategias de mitigación establecidas por las autoridades sanitarias del país, las directrices de la American Academy of Sleep Medicine, y la literatura disponible sobre el tema, la cual fue revisada luego de realizar una búsqueda en las bases de datos PubMed, SciELO y Google Scholar usando los términos “sleep” “sleep medicine” y “COVID19”.

El gasto fiscal de la guerra contra los portadores de drogas ilícitas: una aproximación para Colombia

Around the world, governments spend enormous amounts of public funds in controlling possession, manufacturing and trafficking of illicit drugs. These costs are usually difficult to observe, as they correspond to the opportunity cost of many bureaucrats involved in the process. In this paper, we estimate the expected cost per arrest for possession, manufacturing or trafficking of illicit drugs for the case of Colombia. We find that the expected cost of an arrest is roughly COP$11 million, hence the expected total cost associated with the 984,106 arrests carried out between 2001 and 2015 adds up to COP$10.6 billion. Also, we analyse whether these expenditures are justified by the control of international drug trafficking, crime associated with drug dealing in local markets or drug abuse deterrence. We conclude that none of these reasons justify such fiscal expenditures; rather, these seem to be explained by an issue of incentive compatibility in Colombian authorities.

2008–2017 Bogota River Water Quality Assessment Based on the Water Quality Index

This article provides a deep analysis of the water quality at the upper basin of the Bogota River (Colombia) between 2008 and 2017. The Water Quality Index has been the indicator employed to determine the ecological status of the river. This index was chosen in order to normalize the analysis, given that it is commonly used by the Institute of Hydrology, Meteorology and Environmental Studies, a government agency of the Ministry of Environment and Sustainable Development of Colombia, to determine the state of surface effluents. The results obtained were organized in a double-entry matrix in order to relate the variables of the sample period and the sampling station. The research revealed an insufficient quality of water, demonstrating that the high stretch of the Bogota River basin has, in general, regular or acceptable water quality, while only five stations showed an acceptable status. Surprisingly, the stations located close to the wastewater treatment plants of the municipalities of Choconta, Suesca, Gachancipa, and Tocancipa, as well as Rio Negro, have a poor water quality, discharging a high load of contaminants into the river. Although great efforts have been made by Colombian authorities to restore the critical state of the majority of their aquatic ecosystems, recent implementation of policies and instruments have not shown significant achievements yet. For this reason, this study aims to present a powerful decision-tool for the monitoring and evaluation of correction measures implemented on this river basin. The data used in this research were provided by the Regional Autonomous Corporation of Cundinamarca.

Systemic Factors and Barriers That Hamper Adequate Data Collection on the HIV Epidemic and Its Associated Inequalities in Countries With Long-Term Armed Conflicts: Lessons From Colombia.

Although advances in treatment and diagnosis have transformed HIV into a chronic disease in high-income countries, a spectrum of structural, political, sociocultural, and health system barriers hamper early diagnosis and timely treatment of HIV in many middle- and low-income countries. In most Latin American countries, in spite of the great improvement in access to antiretroviral therapy, a large proportion of individuals infected with HIV do not know their status. In Colombia, the Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS currently estimates a much larger number of HIV cases than the number reported by Colombian authorities. Potential reasons for underdiagnosis and underreporting include sociocultural factors such as social stigma, restrictions in access to health care, a lack of public health research and robust surveillance systems, and the particular recent history and social situation related to the armed conflict the country has suffered through for several decades. Lessons from Colombia may be helpful in monitoring, understanding, and tackling the HIV epidemic in countries with long-term armed conflicts.

Analysis of the main drivers of CO2 emissions changes in Colombia (1990–2012) and its political implications

In this study, an Index Decomposition Analysis-Logarithmic Mean Divisia Index (IDA-LMDI) model was developed to find the drivers behind the changes in CO2 emissions between 1990 and 2012 in Colombia. The results facilitate the assessment of the impact in Colombia of the main measures regarding the mitigation of CO2 emissions. Likewise, it allows us to analyze whether the recent measures implemented by the Colombian authorities to mitigate emissions are moving in the right direction. To carry out the decomposition analysis, six effects were taken into consideration: carbonization, the substitution of fossil fuels, the penetration of renewable energy, energy intensity, wealth and population. The effects of income and population appear as drivers of emissions for the period analyzed. A stylized analysis allows richer conclusions to be extracted regarding a battery of recommendations for emission mitigation policies that are compatible with economic growth in Colombia.

Eradication without prior consultation: the aerial fumigation of coca in the black communities of the Colombian Pacific

ABSTRACTUntil October 2015, Colombia was the only country in the world still permitting the controversial practice of aerially fumigating illicit crops – mostly coca and, to a lesser extent, opium poppies – despite evidence that suggested serious violations of the socio-environmental rights of affected communities. According to US and Colombian authorities involved in the conduct of aerial eradication, however, most of this criticism was unwarranted or exaggerated. This article, based on interviews conducted in the last year the aerial eradication program was in operation, analyzes the disconnection between officials involved in the oversight of the aerial eradication and related policy versus black communities of the Pacific region affected by this strategy. More specifically, it examines why these rural black communities, supposedly guaranteed the right to prior consultation, were never granted this process and why the aerial eradication complaint system failed to address the grievances lodged against it. The article concludes by reflecting on the implications for the territorial rights of black communities and illicit-crop eradication in Colombia.

Economic shocks and crime: Evidence from the crash of Ponzi schemes

In November 2008, Colombian authorities dismantled a network of Ponzi schemes, making hundreds of thousands of investors lose tens of millions of dollars throughout the country. Using original data on the geographical incidence of the Ponzi schemes, this paper estimates the impact of their breakdown on crime. We find that the crash of Ponzi schemes differentially exacerbated crime in affected districts. Confirming the intuition of the standard economic model of crime, this effect is only present in places with relatively weak judicial and law enforcement institutions, and with little access to consumption smoothing mechanisms such as microcredit. In addition, we show that, with the exception of economically-motivated felonies such as robbery, violent crime is not affected by the negative shock.

La aplicación del Convenio 169 de la OIT sobre pueblos indígenas y tribales y sus implicaciones en nuestra legislación interna

<p>El principal instrumento internacional de protección de los derechos humanos, individuales y colec- tivos de los pueblos indígenas y tribales es el Convenio 169 de la Organización Internacional del Trabajo, OIT, 1989. En Colombia, a pesar de estar vigente desde 1991, su aplicación por parte de las autoridades colombianas todavía genera tensiones, especialmente entre los pueblos indígenas y tribales a los que está dirigido y el Estado colombiano, motivo que ha llevado al autor de este artículo a presentar y analizar algunas de las más importantes decisiones judiciales, administrativas y legisla- tivas que se han proferido en materias relacionadas con el Convenio, con el fin de verificar las causas que han impedido su aplicación eficaz y el pleno reconocimiento de la diversidad étnica y cultural en nuestro país.</p>

Prevalence, Resistance Patterns, and Risk Factors for Antimicrobial Resistance in Bacteria from Retail Chicken Meat in Colombia

As a step toward implementing the Colombian Integrated Program for Antimicrobial Resistance Surveillance (COIPARS), this study aimed to establish the baseline antimicrobial resistance patterns of Salmonella serovars, Escherichia coli, and Enterococcus spp. isolates in retail poultry meat from independent stores and from a main chain distributor center. MICs of the isolates were determined for antimicrobials used both in humans and animals, using an automated system. Salmonella serovars were isolated from 26% of the meat samples and E. coli from 83%, whereas Enterococcus faecalis and Enterococcus faecium were detected in 81 and 13% of the meat samples, respectively. A principal finding of concern in this study was that almost 98% of isolates tested were multidrug resistant. Ceftiofur, enrofloxacin, nalidixic acid, and tetracycline were the antimicrobials that showed the highest frequency of resistance among Salmonella and E. coli isolates. For enterococci, 61.5% of E. faecium isolates were found to be resistant to quinupristin-dalfopristin; this is significant because it is used to treat nosocomial infections when vancomycin resistance is present. Vancomycin resistance was detected in 4% of the E. faecalis isolates. The results of our study highlight the need for rapid implementation of an integrated program for surveillance of antimicrobial resistance by the Colombian authorities in order to monitor trends, raise awareness, and help promote practices to safeguard later generation antimicrobial agents.

The education investment dimension of international personal remittances in Colombia

The study investigated the relationship between personal international remittances received and gross enrolment ratio in Colombia. There are three hypotheses explaining the relationship between personal international remittances and education (human capital development). These are (1) remittances-led education hypothesis, (2) education-led remittances hypothesis and (3) neutrality hypothesis that says there is no relationship at all between these two variables. Although majority of the empirical studies support the remittances-led education hypothesis, the subject is still attracting contradicting findings and not yet conclusive. It is on the backdrop of such lack of consensus in the literature that the author investigated the relationship between personal remittances received and gross enrolment ratio primary and secondary (%) in Colombia. The study used the auto-regressive distributive lag (ARDL) bounds co-integration testing technique with annual time series data ranging between 1978 and 2010 to determine the existence of a long run relationship between personal remittances and education in Colombia. The ARDL F-bounds co-integration test revealed that personal remittances received and gross enrolment ratio for both primary and secondary schools in Colombia are not co-integrated or they do not have any long run relationship, thus supporting the neutrality hypothesis. This conclusion was arrived at using either personal remittances or gross enrolment ratio as a dependent variable. These results imply that personal remittances received in Colombia were directed more towards consumption and not invested in education. The study therefore urges the Colombian authorities to concientise the recipients of the personal remittances to invest in the children’s education rather than spending the remittances on consumption purposes

Colombian SOEs: A Review Against the OECD Guidelines on Corporate Governance of State-Owned Enterprises

This report evaluates the corporate governance practices of Colombian SOEs against the OECD Guidelines on Corporate Governance of State-Owned Enterprises (SOEs). The assessment was prepared based on information provided by the Colombian authorities, an analysis of the available literature and interviews with authorities, consultants, academics, and company as well as stakeholder representatives. Following a brief introduction, Part A of the report provides information about the context in which Colombian SOEs operate, including the main aspects of the regulatory framework and its key actors. Part B refers successively to the different chapters of the Guidelines, evaluating Colombian norms and practices in their light. The final section sets out the report’s conclusions and recommendations. Complementary information can be found in the five annexes. The review was prepared at the request of the Colombian authorities and approved by the OECD Working Party on State Ownership and Privatisation Practices.

Brokers and Key Players in the Internationalization of the FARC

The Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionarias de Colombia (Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia—FARC) was originally founded to protect Colombian peasants from harsh landowner policies in exchange for food and supplies. Over time, it has evolved into an internationally connected, narco-trafficking organization that displays little concern for the peasants it once vowed to protect. In recent years, Colombian authorities have become more adept at countering the FARC, forcing it to operate increasingly outside of Colombia. The FARC's transformation from a local insurgency into an internationally connected one is the focus of this article. Using social network analysis it identifies key leaders who are tied to this transformation and discusses implications concerning the FARC's future.

Las propuestas de desarollo urbano y el centro histórico de Cartagena

The following text is a synthesis of a report presented to the United Nations Project for Development-UNESCO, regarding a possible Heritage Management Plan that the Colombian authorities would present as a result of the city of Cartagena being declared a World Heritage site. The experience was very interesting because it allowed the possibility to understand the necessary evolution of UNESCO's vision in order to validate the declarations starting with the integration of a comprehensive urban look that would go beyond the monumental heritage. The analysis of the plans and the projects undertaken through the years in the Historical Area of Cartagena was able to establish the evolution of the legal norms for protection and the theoretical concepts of evaluation and classification included in the projects. The weaknesses that were found in some of these concepts allowed the subsequent elaboration of recommendations to incorporate an integral urban vision for the protection of the heritage.

“Colombia, the only risk is wanting to stay”

The link between risk or danger and Colombia is well established in the transnational imaginary and it is difficult to separate the two in the current ideological climate of international security. This imaginary of risk is so persistent that state-organised promotion of tourism is forced to take it into account in order to refute it. Foreign embassies, however, continue to present Colombia as a risky destination. At the same time, certain tourists, seeking meaning and intensity from their travel experience, use this imaginary of risk and play with stereotypes about Colombia during a trek in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta. Is the risk real or not ? It does not matter, as long as the imaginary of risk is shared. This process enables the ‘intrepid’ travellers to distinguish themselves from other tourists. In this way, the visitors insist on the imaginary of risk even as the Colombian authorities seek to minimise it.

Fiscal Policy in Colombia and Prospective Analysis After the 2008 Financial Crisis

The purpose of this study is twofold: First, it provides an empirical characterization of fiscal policy in Colombia over the last decades, by assessing the three most relevant macroeconomic factors: the behavior of fiscal policy over the business cycle; whether it has been coherent with the long-term debt sustainability; and, whether it has been a significant source of macroeconomic volatility. The results are compared internationally. Second, it evaluates the fiscal stance of the Colombian authorities during the 2008 global financial crisis, and examines the adoption of a fiscal rule as an appropriate tool to manage public finances beyond the recovery phase.