College-educated Young Adults Research Articles

The sociopolitical liberalization of young adults: transforming a dominated habitus

Since the 1940s research has suggested that higher education has a liberalizing influence on sociopolitical orientation, although none has demonstrated how this might occur. In the U.S. there is an increasing trend among conservative politicians and media to depreciate the value of a college education, by alleging that college turns people into liberals. To examine the charge that ‘college turns people into liberals’, I conducted biographical narrative interviews with 24 American college-educated young adults who changed their sociopolitical orientation from conservative to liberal. Utilizing Bourdieu’s concepts of habitus and habitus clivé, and grounded theory methods of analysis, I developed a processual model of such transformation. Findings from this study refute narratives of professorial or institutional indoctrination. Instead, the model indicates a more complex process of habitus transformation, that in most cases begins before college students arrive on campus. This study is important because a successful democracy requires an educated populace.

Generations: The Real Differences between Gen Z, Millennials, Gen X, Boomers, and Silents—and What They Mean for America’s Future

GENERATIONS: The Real Differences between Gen Z, Millennials, Gen X, Boomers, and Silents--and What They Mean for America's Future by Jean M. Twenge. New York: Atria Books, 2023. 560 pages. Hardcover; $32.50. ISBN: 9781982181611. E-book; $16.99. ASIN: B0B3Y9RSFP. *"Thinking without comparison is unthinkable. And, in the absence of comparison, so is all scientific thought and scientific research." --Sociologist Guy Swanson, 1971 *Certainly, the ideas behind Swanson's observations guide the work of San Diego State University psychologist Jean M. Twenge, who has published scores of peer-reviewed empirical studies comparing the responses of different birth cohorts (generations) on the same social survey questions over time. Although limited to the United States here, her empirical research mostly compares present attitudes to past ones and compares different generations to each other in the same time frame. She has long been thinking with comparisons. *Twenge's previous book, iGen (2017), drew on publicly available data from four major social surveys to argue convincingly that social media heavily influenced Gen Z (composed of people born between 1995 and 2012), often to their physical and psychological detriment. In her sequel, Twenge seeks to widen the scope and the audience for such research and even purports to predict the future of America. Even if the science of comparing generational cohorts will fall short in predicting the future (as seems likely), readers will benefit from learning about typical traits of different generations or birth cohorts in the United States. *Generations compares six generations of Americans: the Silent generation (born 1925-1945), Baby Boomers (born 1946-1964), Generation X (born 1965-1979), Millennials (born 1980-1994), Generation Z (born 1995-2012), and Polars (born 2013-present). Each of the substantive chapters (chaps. 2-7) focuses on a single generation and contrasts its members' average responses on a wide array of social survey questions from twenty-four datasets with a combined number of 39 million respondents. Most readers will be able to identify family, friends, and neighbors from each generation that exemplify some of the attitudes that Twenge labels as distinctive. *Twenge constantly uses charts to show differences between generations and average attitudinal shifts over time. While the book is hefty and full of statistics and charts that can occasionally overwhelm the reader, the prose is mostly lively and sprinkled with humor. The overall impact is to convince the reader that generational cohorts do tend to share outlooks. My copy is studded with post-it flags marking places in the text where her observations surprised me or nailed down something I had only vaguely sensed before. As a member of Generation X, for instance, I was surprised at how many traits identified by Twenge resonated with my own life experiences, and I suspect other readers will have similar "aha" moments for their generation. They can also gain a new appreciation for how other generations have impacted American society. *How have generational cohorts come to differ? Twenge's thesis, laid out on pages 4-19, is that technological changes drive generational differences, often mediated by individualism and a "slow-life strategy, with lower birth rates, slower development, and more resources and care put into each child" (p. 18). With lower death rates, longer life expectancies, and technological changes, younger generations can take their time in finishing their education, starting their careers, marrying, buying a home, and having children--if they even decide to have children at all. As Twenge notes, "By 2020, the birth rate for both teens and for women in their early 20s was the lowest it had ever been since records were first kept in 1918--about half of what it was in 1990" (p. 377). The slow-life strategy, ascendant for the younger generations, might be the most important shift described in the book, along with declines in religious belief and behavior. *Even if academic researchers might want to quibble about her use of "technology" as a very broad, catch-all term, it is impossible to dispute that these trends are in motion for the typical members of these cohorts. The effects are evident to anyone who knows college-educated young adults in their twenties or thirties. They are less likely to marry, less likely to have children, less likely to attend religious services, and less likely to hold traditional views of gender identity when compared to previous generations. Cross-national comparisons with Canada and other industrialized countries--as well as more diverse countries--might help clarify the reasons for such generational shifts of attitudes and behaviors. *Furthermore, when the book seeks to predict the future in the final chapter, it feels forced. Twenge herself cites at least three failed predictions made by Neil Howe and William Strauss, the previous gurus of generational analysis (p. 295). Readers thirty years from now should return to this volume to see how well Twenge's predictions have held up. One suspects that we will be surprised by some unforeseen trends. *Notably for the readers of this journal, measures of religious observance and belief show steep declines that began with Millennials (born 1980-1994) and continued with Gen Z (born 1995-2012). This is a troubling trend for anyone who cares about social well-being. As Twenge notes, "Humans have an innate desire to believe in something larger than themselves and to seek meaning in their lives. If religion stops filling this role, something else will step in to fill it" (p. 504). Twenge cannot help but express a concern for the future of American society here and elsewhere. Christian scholars should join her. After all, our faith is transmitted through the generations. As Psalm 145:4 says, "One generation commends your works to another; they tell of your mighty acts." Are we failing to transmit the story to younger generations? This book compiles extensive evidence that we might be--and that American society might be worse off as a result. *Generations is best understood less as an attempt to advance psychological science and more as a concerned American psychologist's data-studded jeremiad. Twenge compares thousands of data points in order to persuade us to care about the future of American society, which has promoted individualism to the detriment of collective well-being. Those called to love their neighbor would do well to study the trends here and ponder how they can care better for all generations of those neighbors. For those of who us are part of a kingdom that "endures through all generations" (Ps. 145:13), we can learn from Twenge how to reach members of each of the generations alive today while promoting a less individualistic society. *Reviewed by Scott Waalkes, Professor of International Politics and Director of General Education, Malone University, Canton, OH 44709.

Examining migration factors among generative college graduates: Strategic implications for people attraction, retention, and leadership transfer efforts

ABSTRACT Out-migration of college-educated young adults – a phenomenon that continues to plague rural community vitality – affects not just population size, but also has larger implications for leadership transfer due to impending Baby Boomer retirements. To help community leaders and policy makers simultaneously address forthcoming local leadership transfers as well as young adult attraction and retention efforts, community development scholars and practitioners will benefit from understanding young adults who think and act as “community builders” when choosing their living community after college – the focus of the current descriptive study. Both economic (i.e. available job opportunities) and non-economic (i.e. leadership opportunities) factors were identified as most important to migration decisions with “opportunities to make a difference” and “obtain work-life balance” emerging as highly important community choice factors. These results highlight strategic implications for people attraction, retention, and leadership transfer efforts.

Financial behaviors, financial satisfaction, and goal attainment among college-educated young adults: A mediating analysis with latent change scores

The aim of the study is to investigate how 2,084 U.S. college-educated young adults (61.9% female, and 69.5% non-Hispanic White) navigated the goal attainment process during the transition to adulthood. Using four-wave data collected across eight years, we examined how financial behaviors (self-regulating behaviors) predicted both depressive symptoms (affective goal attainment evaluations) and financial obstacles to goal attainment (cognitive goal attainment evaluations) via financial satisfaction (resources). Given the variability in developmental trajectories (i.e., initial levels and rates of over-time changes) among young adults, we conducted an exploratory mediational analysis with Latent Change Scores. The results revealed indirect-only mediation patterns, and 8 of 16 (50%) indirect effects via financial satisfaction were statistically significant. Collectively, we identified the salient roles of financial behaviors and financial satisfaction among young adults who pursued and attained life goals amid the financial difficulties during the 2007–2009 Great Recession. Our findings should be informative for promoting desired development among the current generation of young adults who were pursuing goals during the financial recession, primarily by indicating the necessity in implementing financial education and providing financial resources for young adults.

Social identities, place, mobility, and belonging: Intersectional experiences of college-educated youth

Youth are commonly understood to be a crucial population for the future viability and vibrancy of rural communities. Thus, researchers often focus on the migration intentions and patterns of youth to better understand rural community sustainability and well-being. However, the role of social identities in young people's relationship to place and the perspectives of college students are not well-represented in the literature. This paper addresses these gaps by highlighting the intersectional qualities of social identities and place and how these intersections relate to college-educated young adults' perspectives on mobility. The paper is based on data from focus groups with college students and interviews with college-educated young adults living in the Appalachian region of the United States where many communities are in economic transition following long-term declines in the coal industry. The sample was purposefully built to include a diverse representation of genders, sexual orientations, and racial identities, and the data were analyzed through an intersectional lens in order to access information about the connections among social identities, place, mobility, and belonging. The data show that the navigation of mobility and social identities has the potential to strengthen young people's relationship with place despite limiting factors. Furthermore, experiences of mobility along with institutional support can help foster this connection. Overall, this paper argues that social identities are essential components for understanding the potentially limiting and liberating aspects of the mobility imperative in the context of metronormativity.

Romantic Attachment Orientations, Financial Behaviors, and Life Outcomes Among Young Adults: A Mediating Analysis of a College Cohort

Guided by the Vulnerability-Adaption-Stress model (Karney and Bradbury 1995), we used data from 635 college-educated young adults to examine associations between romantic attachment orientations (i.e., attachment anxiety and attachment avoidance) and young adults’ life outcomes (i.e., financial satisfaction, life satisfaction, and relationship satisfaction; Aim 1). We also conducted a mediating model to examine indirect associations from romantic attachment orientations to life outcomes via young adult’s own financial behaviors and perceived partners’ financial behavior (i.e., each young adult’s perception of their partner's financial behaviors; Aim 2). For Aim 1, high attachment anxiety and/or high attachment avoidance was associated with low life satisfaction and low relationship satisfaction. For Aim 2, high attachment anxiety was associated with low financial satisfaction and low life satisfaction via young adults' own less responsible financial behaviors. Further for Aim 2, high attachment anxiety and high attachment avoidance were associated with low relationship satisfaction via perceived partners’ less responsible financial behavior. Across these two aims, we found that romantic attachment orientations were associated with financial behaviors and, in turn, life outcomes. We suggest researchers and practitioners consider romantic attachment orientations when seeking to understand and improve financial behaviors and life outcomes among young adults.

An analysis of the relationship between employment to a desired job and the job-major match: Focusing on the first job of college-educated young adults

An analysis of the relationship between employment to a desired job and the job-major match: Focusing on the first job of college-educated young adults

Knowledge and Beliefs About E-Cigarettes in Straight-to-Work Young Adults.

Young adults are a growing segment of electronic cigarette (e-cigarette) users. Young adults who go straight to work (STW) from high school make up a large portion of the young adult population, yet research to date has focused on college-educated young adults. This study explored STW young adult beliefs and knowledge about e-cigarettes. Semistructured individual interviews were used to elicit in-depth information from STW young adults ages 19-31 from a state in the southwest United States. Thirty interviews were conducted focusing on beliefs about e-cigarettes, current knowledge, and information-seeking practices. Interviews were recorded, transcribed, and analyzed using NVivo. Nine themes were identified falling into three categories: (1) beliefs about e-cigarettes, (2) knowledge about e-cigarettes, and (3) personal rules about e-cigarettes. STW young adults held positive beliefs about the health and safety of e-cigarettes for themselves, others, and the environment. They reported their social networks and the Internet as reliable sources of information about e-cigarettes, but they reported parents as the best source for advice. Participants had rules about e-cigarettes that contradicted some of their beliefs such as using e-cigarettes around children indicating that their beliefs were not as strongly held as they initially reported. Industry marketing and contradictory information may contribute to STW young adult knowledge and beliefs about e-cigarettes. Lack of credible public health information may also contribute to this issue. Ensuring that what is known about the benefits and harms of e-cigarettes is conveyed through multichannel communication and continued monitoring of marketing practices of the e-cigarette industry in light of the soon to be implemented regulations should be top priorities for public health. Beliefs and knowledge of STW young adults have not been explored even though they are heavily targeted by the e-cigarette industry. This group holds strong positive beliefs about the health and safety of e-cigarettes, despite having little credible knowledge about them. This study indicates a need for efforts focused on educating STW young adults on the potential risks and benefits of e-cigarettes and the communication of credible information or at minimum the acknowledgment of the uncertainty regarding the long-term health effects of e-cigarettes. It also indicates a need for continued monitoring and advocacy related to marketing practices of the e-cigarette industry.

Musical taste and patterns of symbolic exclusion in the United States 1993–2012: Generational dynamics of differentiation and continuity

Most research in the sociology of taste has focused primarily on the role of socioeconomic status (SES) in modulating patterns of cultural choice. This has led to a general neglect of the role of age as a structuring factor in its own right. In this paper, we turn our attention to cross-sectional and over-time differences in expressions of cultural taste across age groups. We concentrate on the phenomenon that Bryson (1996) has referred to as “symbolic exclusion”: namely, the (differential) propensity of persons to express dislike for certain cultural styles. Comparing musical dislikes from the 1993 General Social Survey data to a replication of the same instrument in 2012, we find that, overall, Americans are less likely to express dislikes across most musical categories, with the most substantial declines observed for Rap and Heavy Metal, especially among college-educated young adults. The exceptions to this pattern are the Country, Folk, and Religious styles, all of which are more likely to be disliked in 2012 than they were in 1993, and Rock and Classical music, both of which are increasingly rejected by high-status young people at the same time that they are less likely to be rejected by their same-status older counterparts.

A Generation Indebted

In this study, I examine how young adult indebtedness has changed across three cohorts of young adults in the 1970s, 1980s, and 2000s. I pool data from four National Longitudinal Surveys of Youth cohorts—the NLS-M 1966, NLS-W 1968, NLSY 1979, and NLSY 1997. I have three key findings. First, debt burdens (debt relative to economic resources) have increased substantially across the three cohorts of study. Despite the fact that the most recent cohort of young adults are earlier along in their debt accrual career and have yet to hit many of the major adult milestones that often lead to debt, they are burdened with more debt than previous cohorts of young adults who achieved these milestones earlier. Second, young adult debt portfolios have shifted towards noncollateralized (unsecured) and student loan debt over time, the latter replacing home mortgage debt as the primary form of wealth-building debt among young adults. Third, cohort changes in debt have occurred unequally across social class lines. Young adults from lower social class backgrounds have disproportionately taken on more unsecured debt over time, relative to their more advantaged counterparts. The growth in debt burden across cohorts, however, has been most pronounced among college-educated young adults. Keywords: debt; social class; cohorts; transition to adulthood; life-course perspective. The economic crisis of 2008 called attention to the risks associated with rising household and consumer debt. Over the last 40 years, inflation adjusted household debt has increased dramatically, and debt has become more difficult to repay for American families (Campbell and Hercowitz 2009, 2010; Maki 2002). More recently, rising debt has stoked popular and scholarly concern that young adults are increasingly at risk for starting their adult careers buried under a mountain of debt with no hope of repayment (Draut 2005; Draut and Silva 2004; Kamenetz 2006). Little is known, however, about how young adult indebtedness has changed over time. In this article I examine how credit use and debt burdens have shifted across three cohorts of young adults. For many, young adulthood is the beginning of the debt accrual career. It is a stage of life when individuals and households have relatively low incomes and few assets (Haveman and Wolff 2005; Wolff 2001). Yet it is also a time when young people make significant decisions and investments in their future—such as completing their education, purchasing a home, and getting married—most of which lead them to acquire debt. On the one hand, access to credit and taking on debt provides young adults with the financial resources necessary to achieve many of these milestones. On the other hand, recent literature on debt in the transition to adulthood suggests that becoming overburdened with debt at this critical life stage is likely to diminish young adults’ ability to attain economic independence, increase their risk of bankruptcy, and have consequences for their economic and psychological well-being (Atkinson 2010; Drentea 2000; Dwyer, McCloud, and Hodson 2011, 2012). But despite a growing focus on the consequences of youth indebtedness, surprisingly little research has investigated cohort differences in credit use and debt burdens in the early young adult years. Nearly all debt research focuses on historical trends in debt across the entire population

A Closer Look at Smoking Among Young Adults: Where Tobacco Control Should Focus Its Attention

We sought to fill gaps in knowledge of smoking behaviors among college-educated and non-college-educated young adults. We used data from the 2003 Tobacco Use Supplement of the Current Population Survey to analyze smoking behaviors among young adults aged 18-24 years and older young adults aged 25-34 years by college status (enrolled, or with a degree, but not enrolled) and other measures of socioeconomic position. Current smoking prevalence among US young adults aged 18-24 years who are not enrolled in college or who do not have a college degree was 30%. This was more than twice the current smoking prevalence among college-educated young adults (14%). Non-college-educated young adults were more likely than were college-educated young adults to start smoking at a younger age and were less likely to have made a quit attempt, although no differences were found in their intentions to quit. Higher rates of smoking in the non-college-educated population were also evident in the slightly older age group. Non-college-educated young adults smoke at more than twice the rate of their college-educated counterparts. Targeted prevention and cessation efforts are needed for non-college-educated young adults to prevent excess morbidity and mortality in later years.

Perceptions of Marriage Preparation among College-Educated Young Adults with Greater Family-Related Risks for Marital Disruption

This study assessed levels of motivation to participate in marriage preparation and whether the manner in which marriage preparation programs are produced, priced, placed, or promoted needs to differ for those at greater family-related risks for marital disruption, with a sample of 964 college students. Although respondents with greater risks reported equal or greater motivation to participate in marriage preparation, they also had less optimism about marriage for themselves, which, in turn, negatively affected their motivation. Respondents had similar patterns of preferences for particular elements of marriage preparation programs, regardless of marital risk factors. Those with greater risks, however, rated parents and ministers as lower quality marriage information sources and were less interested in attending programs recommended by parents or ministers, led by clergy, and held in a religious setting, but were less deterred from participating if the leaders had less than "ideal" characteristics, such as being divorced themselves.

Racial and Gender Effects on Perceptions of Marriage Preparation Programs among College-Educated Young Adults

Perceptions of marriage preparation programs were assessed among Black and White college students. Blacks reported a greater need for marriage preparation than Whites. Findings suggest that marriage preparation programs will reach more Black young adults if they demand fewer hours and weeks and are located near home. Implications are discussed in terms of how a program might be produced, priced, and promoted and where it might be held to attract a larger, more diverse audience. The need for marriage preparation has been recognized by professionals for a long time (e.g., Foster, 1935). Studies of high school (Yarber, 1981) and college students (Martin & Martin, 1984; Silliman, Schumm, & Jurich, 1992) indicate a need for and interest in marriage preparation programs. There also is evidence that marriage preparation programs are effective (Guerney & Maxson, 1990); however, such programs are notoriously underattended. Olson (1983) estimated that only 30% of couples who marry have participated in even 1-2 hours of formal marriage preparation. One reason for low participation may be that client needs are not assessed when programs are developed (Schumm & Denton, 1979). Marketing emphasizes understanding the target audience of family life educational programs through empirical research, as a prelude to or concomitant with program development, in order to tailor the programs to the needs of the audience and, thus, facilitate their acceptance (Kotler & Bloom, 1984, cited in Levant, 1987). Some studies have been conducted to assess young adult perceptions of marriage preparation programs (Koval, Emery, & Wong, 1991; Koval, Wong, Emery, & Granoff, 1992; Silliman & Schumm, 1989; Silliman et al., 1992). However, previous research has not been guided by a marketing perspective and has been conducted with predominantly White samples. In addition, the influence of gender on perceptions of programs has not been systematically assessed. Comparing perceptions between groups might reveal a need to alter program structure and marketing strategies in order to attract larger segments of the target audience for marriage preparation programs. Using the of marketing (product, price, place, and promotion; Katz, 1988) as a conceptual guide, the current study assesses the influence of race (Black and White) and gender on young adults' perceptions of marriage preparation programs. The findings give developers and providers a thorough, consumer-based look at marriage preparation that is important to consider in the development and dissemination of programs. Specifically, the findings provide clues as to how a program might be developed, priced, and promoted, as well as where it might be held in order to attract more educated Black and White males and females. A Marketing Perspective and Prevention Programs Marketing research links the 4 Ps as the framework for data collection on quently based (Katz, 1988). Marketing research quantifies and qualifies the nature of client needs and monitors the effectiveness of the process of satisfthose needs. If clients' needs are not satisfied, revisions begin with the 4 Ps (Katz, 1988). Product is the total package of professional services that is delivered to the client. The quality of these services may be an important factor in the client's decision to participate in a program. Price, the fee charged for services rendered, is determined after examining several interacting factors, such as competitor pricing, objectives of the organization (profitability vs. market penetration), and capacity to supply services. Place describes the physical location where services are offered to users. Convenience for clients may be a key issue in attendance of programs. Promotion is the method of bringing awareness of the service to the service user. Promotional activities, including advertising and word of mouth, must sustain an image of propriety and respectability in order to expand services to a larger target audience (Katz, 1988). …

How Personal Protective Equipment Affects Perceptions of Dentists

In this study, 248 college-educated young adults completed the Dental Fears Survey. Subjects then viewed one of two slides of a dentist. In one slide, the dentist wore no PPE at all; in the other, the dentist wore gloves, mask, glasses, face shield and lab coat. Subjects completed a 20-item semantic differential scale to assess their attitudes toward the dentist portrayed in the slide they saw.

Still crazy after all these years: Reckless behavior among young adults aged 23–27

Reckless behavior was examined among 115 college-educated young adults aged 23–27 who responded to a mail survey. Rates of recklessness were high (near or above 50%) for some types of driving and sexual behavior, low in the areas of drug use and minor criminality. Sensation seeking and probability judgements were related to driving recklessness. A substantial percentage of subjects had experienced negative consequences related to reckless behavior (e.g. an unintended pregnancy, an automobile accident), but the experience of these events was not related to current behavior. Married subjects were less likely to report driving while intoxicated or marijuana use.

Attitude toward motherhood: Gender, generational, and religious comparisons

Attitudes toward mothering and motherhood are examined within a sample representative of college-educated young adults and their mothers. Factor structures are compared based upon response to the 40-item Motherhood Inventory. Two factors are indicated for males: a “chauvinism” factor describing women as appropriately serving and providing for men and children, and a factor that represents acceptance of contraceptive choice for women. For younger women, the theme of reproductive freedom includes autonomy in choice of motherhood as well as personal fulfillment; a second factor describes traditional rewards and responsibilities of motherhood. For older women, a single dominant factor represents a highly conventionalized definition of women's familial roles. On a scale of acceptance of reproductive freedom (the single common dimension observed for all groups), men score lower than women and Catholics score lower than non-Catholics.

The Structure of Laboratory Dream Reports in Blind and Sighted Subjects

Ten college-educated young adults (four sighted, four congenitally blind, and two adventitiously blind) were studied in a sleep laboratory one night a week for 8 weeks. Dream reports were collected from electroencephalogram-defined sleep onset, rapid eye movement sleep, and non-rapid eye movement sleep, following a standard awakening schedule and interview format. Dream reports were analyzed in terms of subjects' responses to interview questions, which focused on formal organization and sensory contents in the dream. Subjects also were administered a number of tests of waking cognitive abilities, which suggested no general cognitive differences between sighted and blind subjects other than the greater clarity/incidence of auditory than visual imagery for blind subjects. Likewise, despite differences in the role which visual vs. other sensory imagery played in subjects' dreams, the dreams of congenitally blind and sighted subjects otherwise generally were comparable in composition and organization, and could be comparably discriminated in terms of the sleep stages from which they were elicited. Two congenitally blind subjects without any history of form vision were able to represent spatial relationships in dream experience without either visual imagery or compensatory imagery in other modalities. Two congenitally blind subjects with minimal form vision saw in their dreams only to the extent that they had been able to visualize in wakefulness with, once again, no adverse effect on either the momentary richness or the narrative continuity of dreaming. Two blind subjects who became legally blind as teenagers universally reported that their dream visualization was as their waking visual experience had been before they became blind. Moreover, their visual imagery included well defined imaginal representations of people and places known only since the acquisition of blindness. Overall, the results are consistent with the view that the dream is a constructive cognitive process, rather than a reproductive perceptual one, and with the view that the integrative cognitive systems responsible for both the momentary and the sequential organization of the dream do not depend on the presence either of contemporaneous visual-perceptual experience or of well developed visual cognitive codes.