Coliform Organisms Research Articles

Outbreak of cholera due to contaminated pond water utilisation in a rural area of West Bengal, India, 2021

BackgroundOn March 31, 2021, an outbreak of diarrhoeal disease was reported in Dangapara village of Purba Bardhaman district, West Bengal, India. The outbreak was investigated to estimate the magnitude, identify aetiological agents and source of infection, and guide prevention control measures. MethodsWe did an active search for case patients at Dangapara village. We excluded children under five years of age from the epidemiological analysis. We described the outbreak by time, place, and person. We conducted a case control study with 133 controls and 65 cases. Water samples from different sources and rectal swabs from case patients were collected and sent for laboratory investigations. ResultsWe identified 95 case patients among 330 residents of Dangapara village (attack rate 29 %). Three stool samples were positive for Vibrio cholerae, and two pond water samples were contaminated with coliform organisms. Washing utensils [adjusted odds ratio (AOR): 69.8, (95% confidence interval (CI) 6.5–749.5)] and taking a bath in pond water [AOR: 3.4, (95% CI 1.2–9)] were associated with increased risk of illness. About 97% of cases were attributed to washing utensils in pond water. Washing hands before taking food was associated with a lower risk of developing disease with AOR: 0.1 (95% CI 0.03–0.33). ConclusionA cholera outbreak occurred among residents of Dangapara village due to theuse of contaminated pond water for washing utensils and bathing. Prompt management of cases and immediate discontinuation of pond water use stopped the outbreak.

Hygienic Practices and Level of Contamination in Toothbrushes at Mexican Homes in Guadalajara, Jalisco

In the present study, a Google Forms survey open questionnaire was applied to identify variables in hygiene habits that influence the contamination of toothbrushes in Mexican homes. A total of 275 questionnaires were validated, and 18 samples were analyzed to determine microbiology indicator groups (Mesophilic Aerobic Bacteria [MAB], Coliform Organisms [CO], and Yeast and Molds [Y/M]) with dilution and plate casting methods. Results were compared with data obtained from surveys, which were encoded to construct conglomerates. Interestingly, a higher microbial count was found in toothbrushes stored in cases (4.9 × 109 CFU/mL for MAB, 4.43 × 109 CFU/mL for CO, and 4.38 × 109 CFU/mL for Y/M), while the use and disposal of toothbrushes following recommendations of life expectancy limited bacterial growth (<10 CFU/mL for CO and Y/M), reducing the possible growth of pathogens such as Klebsiella pneumoniae, Streptococcus pyogenes, and Pseudomonas, among others. Finally, most people do not have the habit of disinfecting their toothbrushes periodically. Further, the survey revealed that disinfection techniques applied by a limited group (14% of the respondents) are improvised and are not standardized with the objective of disinfection.

Preservation and Handling Practices of Household Drinking Water in Ahmedabad city with special reference to Bacterial Contamination and Diarrheal Episode in Children: A Cross Sectional Study

Background: Safe drinking water is essential for healthy human life. Presence of coliform organism, E. coli in particular, has been found to be the most specific bacteriological indicator of faecal contamination. Studying their preservation and handling practices of household drinking water, its contamination and diarrheal episodes in children is very necessary for hygiene promotion intervention. Methods: This cross-sectional study was conducted at urban field practice area of community medicine department B.J.M.C, Ahmedabad in year 2020-2021. Total 168 Drinking water samples were collected from each household and tested at microbiology department. Information regarding household characteristics, preservation and handling practices of drinking water were gathered from mother using pre-tested and pre-designed proforma. Data were entered in Microsoft excel and analysed using Epi-info Software. Result: Out of 168 households studied, 165(98.2%) households used matka / earthen pot and 161(95.8%) used narrow necked covered container to preserve drinking water. Only in 10 (5.8%) households’ water was filtered with folded cotton cloth at the time of collection. 101 (60%) water containers did have tap while 67 (39.8%) didn’t have it. 4/168 (2.3%) samples were bacteriologically not acceptable for drinking purpose. Conclusion: Narrow necked coveredmatka (earthen pot) was the most commonly used container to preserve drinking water. Though prevalence of bacterial contamination and ADD episodes in under five child were low due to pre-treated piped water supply, diarrhoeal morbidity is more in household where broad necked, non tapped containers used. Education of mother has positive impact on preservation and handling practices of drinking water. Keywords: Preservation, Handling, Drinking water, Coliform, Diarrheal episode, Under 5 children

Biologic quality of households' drinking-water in an urban local government area of Oyo State, Southwest, Nigeria

Background: Inadequate access to Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene (WASH) facilities is a global public health issue with several associated illnesses, particularly in developing countries like Nigeria. It is imperative to understand the availabilities of these facilities, to provide baseline data for policy design and implementation. This study assessed access to WASH facilities. It also examined the factors associated with drinking-water contamination by coliform organisms in households within Ogbomoso North Local Government Area, Oyo-State, Nigeria.
 Methods: Cross-sectional design was employed and a two-stage cluster-sampling method was used to recruit eligible respondents from 100 households. Interviewer-administer, semi-structured questionnaire was used to collect data. Chi-square test and binary logistic regression were used for inferential statistics.
 Results: Mean age of respondents was 40.5±16.7years, 81.0% of the households practiced open defecation, and 78.9% of those with toilet facilities used pit latrines. The most common water source was borehole (71.6%); available within 5 minutes walking distance to residence of 68.0% of study participants. Sixty-three percent of the households had high drinking water coliform counts. High drinking-water coliform counts were influenced by the presence or absence of toilets facilities (OR=4.61, CI=1.22-1.68), types of toilets (OR=2.63, CI=3.22-5.34), and water sources (OR=0.12, CI=0.47-0.68).
 Conclusion: Access to good quality water and basic sanitation facilities is sub-optimal in the study setting despite being an urban community. Authors advocate for more vibrant and intentional government efforts at ensuring equitable access to WASH facilities in the Nigerian communities. This is to fast-track the nation's journey towards the actualization of the sustainable development goal (SDG)-6.

Quantitative Microbial Risk Assessment (QMRA) of major drinking water sources at household level incorporating boiling treatment effect

This study conducted a quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA), incorporating the effect of boiling of water, on major sources of drinking water for households in Afikpo North LGA, Ebonyi State, Nigeria. Water samples were collected from12 drinking water boreholes (n =36), a popular spring water (n= 36) and four popular brands of sachet water (n= 36).The samples were analysed in the laboratory for colonies of microorganisms, coliform organisms, E. coli, Salmonella spp and Giardia lamblia. Data were analysed for specific parameters of the study population (n =1150). The parameters include daily water consumption per person per day (L/person/day), the fraction of thepopulatonexposed to the contaminated drinking water source under consideration, the percentage ofthe population vulnerableto pathogenic infection among the exposed population,the pathogen strike rate in each water source, and the probability that water is boiled before drinking. Quantitative microbial risk assessment was performed for concentrations of E. coli (CFU/L), Salmonella spp (CFU/L), and Giardia lamblia (Cyst/L) in the water samples. From the findings, the risk of diarrhea is significantly highin all the drinking water sources examined. The risk of diarrhea ranged between0.090 and 0.190 for borehole water source, 0.004 and 0.032 for spring water source, 0.039 and 0.125 for sachet water sources. The implication is an urgent need to regualte the operation of water boreholes, protect spring water source, and enforce standards on the processes of production, distribution and storage of sachet water in Afikpo North LGA.

Microbial Load of Canned Foods Imported Through Ibrahim Khalil International Border, Iraq

Background: Canned foods may be contaminated with microbes and primarily with spore-forming bacteria. This study was designed to give information about microbial load of canned foods imported through Ibrahim Khalil International Border, Iraq.
 Methods: Total of 119 samples of canned foods comprising 35 poultry meats, 40 fishes, and 44 tomato pastes were collected from Ibrahim Khalil International Border. Using conventional protocols, samples were evaluated for total plate counts (aerobic and anaerobic microorganisms), spoilage pathogenic, and coliform organisms. The obtained results were analysed by One-Way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) suing GraphPad Prism (V.5.01).
 Results: The total aerobic plate counts at 37 °C incubation were 1.30±0.2 log Colony Forming Unit (CFU)/g in canned meats, 1.32±0.3 log CFU/g for fishes, and tomato paste accounts for 2.11±0.5 log CFU/g. On the other hand, the counts of anaerobic plate were 0.95±0.2 log CFU/g in meat samples, 1.08±0.2 log CFU/g for fishes, and tomatoes were scored at 0.95±0.2 log CFU/g. Bacillus subtilis, B. coagulans, Clostridium perfringens, and Klebsiella spp. were recovered from some of the canned samples.
 Conclusion: Canned tomatoes and fishes relatively had more microorganisms than the poultry meat products. These data suggested that poor hygiene standards in the processing line may result in microbial control loss.

Antibiogram of clinical isolates from primary and secondary healthcare facilities: A step towards antimicrobial stewardship.

Antibiogram development and use is a core element of antimicrobial stewardship practice, such data is scarce in healthcare settings in developing countries. The study aims to determine the epidemiology of clinical isolates and their antibiograms in secondary healthcare (SHC) and primary healthcare (PHC) facilities in Benin City, Nigeria. This was a retrospective study in three laboratories in SHC and PHC facilities. Microbial culture and susceptibility report over the past 4 years was collated. Ethical Clearance was obtained from the Edo State Ministry of Health and Benin City. Data were entered and analyzed using SPSS version 22. Of the 819 isolates, urine, semen and vagina swab were most represented (50.7%; 16.1%; 13.2%). S.aureus (60.6%) and coliform organism (31.9%) were commonly isolated. High resistance of 75%->90% was seen with penicillin, cephalosporin, macrolide, aminoglycoside and floroquinolone against S. aureus, Ps aeruginosa, coliform and E. coli. Resistance to all antimicrobials was observed in 11.7% of the isolates, multidrug resistance (MDR) was found to be 61.4%. MDR for Ps aeruginosa, coliform, E coli, and staph aureus were 95.5%, 67.3% 25.6% and 82.8% respectively. In the SHC, 15.4% of isolates were resistant to all antibacterial compared to none in the PHC. There was consistent yearly increase in resistance to more than six agents in both centers. Gender difference in antimicrobial resistance was observed. High MDR observed in this study emphasizes the need for routine antibiogram and its use in updating treatment guidelines to reflect the current resistance pattern to available antimicrobials.

Effects of local handwashing agents on microbial contamination of the hands in a rural setting in Northwest Ethiopia: a cluster randomised controlled trial

ObjectiveTo evaluate the effectiveness of handwashing with water and wood ash in reducing faecal contamination of the hands.DesignA cluster randomised controlled trial was employed with two arms: handwashing with water...

Possible Hazards And Risks That Search And Rescue (SAR) Dogs May Face In CBRN Incidents

Professional search and rescue (SAR) dogs, which are members of urban search and rescue teams with the help of their higher sense organs with rigorous training, are very helpful in finding buried or missing persons in disasters. In these environments where chaos and disorder prevail, it becomes inevitable for them to face very dangerous and risky situations. As a result of a disaster caused by chemical, biological, radiological and nuclear (CBRN) accidents, dangers such as chemical leaks, pathogenic microorganisms, toxins, vectors, and radioactive and nuclear materials in the environment are among the forgotten or neglected facts that SAR dogs affect as well as affect humanity. Working with little or no personal protective equipment during search and rescue interventions makes them completely vulnerable to these hazards. In the limited resources in the literature on CBRN risks and dangers that search and rescue dogs working in disaster areas may encounter, SAR dogs are exposed to many chemicals and toxic agents during these studies, as well as biological hazards such as protozoal or coliform bacterial organisms, and radiological hazards such as the risk of ingesting radioactive materials and breathing dust. their arrival has been determined. With this study, it was aimed to emphasize the dangers faced by SAR dogs and to emphasize what has been done and what should be done to reduce the possible risks. As a result, necessary precautions should be taken to prevent and/or reduce these possible exposures of SAR dogs, and further studies should be carried out for appropriate standard procedures for appropriate rehabilitation and decontamination.

​Effects of Starter Culture and Types of Bamboo Tubes on Microbiological and Shelf Life Characteristics of Buffalo Milk Banhor Chunga Doi- an Ethnic Product of India

Background: The present research was undertaken to study the effects of yoghurt culture and bamboo tubes on the microbiological and shelf life attributes of curd prepared from buffalo milk in bamboo tubes (popularly known as “Banhor Chunga Doi” in Assam) under room temperature. Methods: Banhor Chunga Doi was prepared using Jati and Jatie Makal bamboo tubes. Starter culture was added and the tubes were kept in ambient room temperature. The shelf-life of the set products was ascertained by objective assessment of pH, titratable acidity and microbial load. Result: Amongst the 4 treatment groups, the samples of B(JB) i.e., Banhor Chunga Doi prepared from boiled and cooled buffalo milk and stored in tubes of Jati bamboo at room temperature for 5d showed the highest pH value of 4.01±0.011 with a corresponding least lactic acid content of 1.21±0.005%. Amongst the 2 control and 4 treatment groups, the highest mean TVC of 8.69 log10cfu/g±0.001 was enumerated in the samples of SC (JB) which might be due to the addition of the starter culture at the dose level of approximately 6.86 log10cfu/g in the beginning of the production process. The starter culture added samples [SC (JB) and SC (JMB)] showed an increasing TVC up to 3rd day of storage. Thereafter, the TVC of these samples decreased on 5th day. The lowest mean TVC of 4.38±0.003 log10cfu/g was noted in the samples of B (JMB) which is due to the thermal destruction of the contaminating microbes during boiling of the milk sample. The samples of the buffalo milk Banhor Chunga Doi that were not inoculated with the starter culture exhibited an increasing TVC from 1st to the 5th d of storage at room temperature. Over the storage period, none of the Banhor Chunga Doi samples either from the control or the treatment groups were found to possess coliform organisms, Escherichia coli, Salmonella, Shigella, Staphylococcus aureus, yeast and moulds. The shelf life of the end product was found to be good for consumption upto 5 days with gradual decrease in pH values and concomitant increase in titratable acidity in all the treatment groups.

Variation of Groundwater and Rainwater Quality in a Nigerian Leper Colony

Adequate supply of potable water is a major challenge in most leper colony with emphasis often placed on water needs of “normal” people but little concern on the safe water source for the physically challenged and vulnerable lepers with limited mobility who cannot search for other sources of water outside designated colony. This study was designed to investigate the quality of water sources within a Nigerian leper colony. Periodic characterization of groundwater and rainwater samples was conducted using American Public Health Association (APHA) methods to determine physico-chemical parameters; appearance, odour, colour, taste, chloride, pH, sulphate, copper, zinc, iron, nitrate and bacteriological parameters; coliform organism and Escherichia coli (E-coli) against the world health organization (WHO) drinking water standard. Water samples were clear and odourless. Most of the parameters tested from both sources; groundwater and rainwater were within the recommended standard. Results from short term water quality parameters taken from 2010-2012 were relatively within the same range while the long-term decadal water quality parameters showed slight variation compared to the short term. Heavy metals showed remarkable variation in 2019 while bacteriological parameters from both water sources were above the permissible threshold. For potable use, water sources require adequate treatment. Boiling or disinfection is recommended until water samples have been retested to ascertain that contamination has been eliminated. In addition, home water-treatment through the use of filters, solar disinfection, or flocculants should be provided to make the water safe.

Bacteriology Test to Detect Coliform Bacteria in Beverages Sold at University Cafeteria in Medan

T The World Health Organization standard for clean and safe water is that 95% of the water samples examined do not contain coliform organisms per 100 mL. Contaminated beverages will lead to digestive tract diseases. Food poisoning cases come from contaminated can be sourced from school canteens, street vendors factories, households, family parties, and even hotels. One of the most frequent and sensitive laboratory tests to detect microorganisms contamination in water is a bacteriological examination. This research aimed to determine the microbiological quality of beverages sold in the university canteens in Medan. The microbiological examination is carried out by the Most Probable Number (MPN) method that consists of two stages, presumptive and confirmation test. From 15 samples of beverages tested, the percentage of samples contaminated with coliform bacteria was 100%, based on WHO criteria were low-risk category by 1 sample (6.7%), intermediate-risk by 5 samples (33.3%), and high-risk category by 9 samples (60%). Therefore, beverages sold in the canteen did not meet the condition for appropriateness to be consumed because of contamination by coliform bacteria.

Evaluation of the Test Characteristics of the HyMast® Bacteriological Test System

Mastitis continues to be a disease of major economic importance to the dairy industry, despite the wide use of mastitis control programs. Approaches to mastitis therapy may range from conservative to aggressive, depending on cow and management factors. Knowledge of the organism, prior to treatment, would appear to be of benefit in selecting the most appropriate course of therapy. The HyMast® test (Pharmacia & Upjohn, Kalamazoo, Michigan) is a selective media bacteriological test system for detection of gram-positive (Staphylococci, Streptococci) and gram-negative (coliform) organisms in milk. Although the primary use of this test has been for decision making in mastitis therapy, there is interest in identifying specific organisms from the test. The objectives of this study were to evaluate the sensitivity and specificity of the HyMast test read by producers on-farm and by readers in-clinic at 3 time periods, compared to standard milk bacteriology.

Water quality of some water sources in Igarra and the environs in Akoko - Edo, Southern Nigeria

Evaluation of the physico-chemical and microbiological characteristics of selected water sources from Igarra and environs in Akoko-Edo, Nigeria was carried out using standard methods. The results obtained for some of the parameters investigated were in the following range: pH (4.2 - 6.8), turbidity (0.01 – 0.75 NTU), conductivity (7.2 – 196.0 μScm-1 ), dissolved oxygen (3.2 – 29.2 mgL-1 ), biochemical oxygen demand (0.0 – 25.6 mgL-1), chloride (10.23 – 106.36 mgL-1 ), calcium (0.0 – 80.88 mgL-1 ), sulphate (0.0 – 7.35 mgL-1 ), nitrate (0.01 – 8.91mgL--1), copper (0.01 – 1.03 mgL-1 ), zinc (0.0 – 1.43 mgL-1 ), Iron (0.02 – 2.30 mgL-1 ) and lead (0.0 – 0.33 mgL -1). All samples harboured coliform organisms in numbers that exceeded the WHO standard for drinking water. Ranges of total heterotrophic bacteria (THB) count was 1.0 x 103 - 1.3 x 104 cfuml-1 ; total heterotrophic fungi (THF) count 1.0 x 103 - 9.0 x 103 cfuml-1 ; presumptive coliform count 0 - 2.9 MPN 100 ml-1 and Escherichia coli 0 - 2.7 MPN 100 ml-1 . This study revealed that magnesium hardness, microbial contamination, and acidity of the water sources which resulted in corrosivity of the water are some of the indicator parameters for Akoko-Edo water quality; and therefore concluded that the water sources were unsuitable for human consumption. Adequate and appropriate treatment of the water prior to consumption to maintain good public health is therefore recommended.Keywords: Water Quality, Public Health, Coliform, Hardness, Corrosivity

Chemical and Microbiological Evaluation of Raw Buffalo Milk Locally Produced in Sharkia Governorate

A total of 100 samples of raw Buffalo milk including (50 from dairy shops and 50 from dairy farms) were collected randomly at Sharkia Governorate for chemical and microbiological evaluation. Chemical assessment of the milk samples collected from dairy shops revealed that the mean values of Fat, Solid Not Fat (SNF), Protein, Lactose and Salts percentages were 6.06±0.36, 9.08±0.23, 3.54±0.09, 4.73±0.14 and 0.74±0.02 respectively, while dairy farm samples were 6.18±0.31, 9.53±0.44, 3.89±0.09, 5.12±0.15 and 0.78±0.03; correspondingly. Microbiological examination revealed that the mean values of faecal coliforms were 2.03×106 ± 0.75×106 and 1.8×106 ± 0.59×106 in dairy shops and farms, respectively. The identified species of isolated coliform organisms in both types of milk wereCitrobacter diversus (11.3% vs 11.1%) Citrobacter freundii (9.6% vs 9.6%), Enterobacter aerogenes (12.1% vs 9.6%), Enterobacter agglomerans (11.3 vs 10.4%), Enterobacter cloacae (13% vs 11.1%), Klebsila oxytoca (9.6% vs 11.9%), Klebsila pneumoniae (9.6% vs 10.4%) and E.coli (23.5% vs 25.9%); respectively. Mean values of total staphylococci were 4.29×106 ± 0.21×106 and 8.08×106 ± 2.27×106 in milk samples of shops and farms respectively.The identified species in both types were S. aureus, S. epidermidis, S. saprophyticus, S. capitis and S. intermedius with percentages of 28% vs 35%, 48% vs 41%, 10% vs 12%, 8% vs 7% and 6% vs 5%; respectively. It was exposed that 8 strains (28.57%) and 10 strains (28.57%) were identified as methicillin-resistant S. aureus that containing mecA gene. In conclusion, high prevalence of different udder pathogens among dairy animals may attributed to the lack of sanitary conditions that adapted in dairy farm. So, restriction to application of hygienic measures in dairy farms as well as quality control and quality assurance programs should be adopted to get safe and good quality raw milk.

Bacteriological Analysis of Drinking Water in Zamfara North Senatorial District, Nigeria

Provision of portable drinking water is of public health concern especially in developing countries where this is unavailable. Microbes are ubiquitous and are known to contaminate materials including food and water. Microbial contamination cannot be detected by sight, smell or taste. A basic laboratory test is the best way to tell if coliform organisms are present as they can be there with no appearance or taste difference. The microbiological quality of drinking water (DW) in Zamfara North Senatorial Zone was examined. A total of 16, two each from each of eight brands of sachet water were bought from water vendors, and were examined for total bacteria load, total coliform and presence of bacteria species using standard microbiological techniques. The result showed that the total viable count of bacteria in all the samples ranged from 6.0×102 CFU/ml to 4.0×108 CFU/ml. Total coliform was 1.8×107 MPN/100 ml for all the four tested samples (D, G, I, J). The organisms isolated were Pseudomonas maltophila, Escherichia coli, Citrobacter freundii, Pseudomonas pseudomollia, Salmonella typhi, Shigella species, and Pseudomonas dimineta. Prevalence of different isolates revealed that Pseudomonas, C. freundii, S. typhi and E. coli were predominant in comparison to Shigella species. The present study revealed that the microbial quality often exceed World Health Organization (WHO) and Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) allowable limit of 1.0x102 CFU/ml for potable water and Standards Organization of Nigeria (SON) maximum permissible level of 10 CFU/ml (total coliform) and 0 CFU/100ml. The high microbial isolates and load may have contaminated the water from the environment. These microbes found in the drinking water sources are known to cause several diseases. Present study indicate that water testing would ensure the supply and availability of contamination-free drinking water; and awareness amongst people towards sanitation and hygienic conditions for storage of drinking water is needed to keep away the use of contaminated water. The present study suggests that drinking water sources should be properly treated prior to consumption using appropriate methods; so as to reduce the occurrence of waterborne diseases.

Study of the characteristics of leachate and its influence on groundwater quality near improper landfill site in Jammu City, India

Increase in groundwater contamination day by day have demonstrated the need for analysis on leachate and groundwater samples due to disposal of solid waste near an improper landfill site at Jammu City. Leachate samples were analysed for all the physicochemical parameters whereas pH, electrical conductivity, total dissolved solids (TDS), BOD, COD, alkalinity, hardness, chloride, sulphate, nitrate, iron and coliform organisms were studied for groundwater samples at different locations near the landfill site using the methods recommended by APHA-AWWA-WPCF. Presence of heavy metals in leachate samples revealed that almost every type of waste is dumped at this landfill site. The most affected sampling location as a result of mixing of leachate with groundwater was the one which was nearest to the landfill site and least affected was the farthest among all. As the distance from the landfill site was increasing, contamination level of groundwater was decreasing. Ground water locations especially to the north and east of landfill site were having parameters like pH, TDS, alkalinity, hardness, chloride, sulphate and iron on higher side then the desirable limit of BIS and hence water was found to be unfit for drinking and other domestic purposes.

Drinking water quality, sanitation and hygiene practices in a rural community of Sokoto State, Nigeria

Background: In many developing countries, Nigeria inclusive, water quality and the risk of waterborne diseases are critical public health concerns. Safe drinking water, sanitation and hygiene are among the five key strategies aimed at combating neglected tropical diseases. Objective: The objective of the study was to assess drinking water quality, household sanitation, and hygiene practices in a rural community. Materials and Methods: A descriptive cross-sectional study was carried out at Tunga Magaji, a rural community of Wamakko local government area, which is one of the Metropolitan Local Government Area of Sokoto state. A total of 391 households participated and were selected using a multistage sampling technique. Household questionnaires and checklist were used to collect data, which were analyzed using IBM Statistical Package for the Social Sciences version 20.0. Results were presented in tables and chart. Univariate analysis in the form of mean and standard deviation was carried out on continuous data. The categorical and grouped data were summarized using frequencies and percentage. Results: River/stream is the major source of their drinking water followed by dung well. Almost all the respondents (97.0%) perceived the water source to be safe for drinking even though more than half said the water has taste. All water samples were weakly basic and had a specific gravity of one. A tap point, dung well and borehole source demonstrated a significant coliform organisms (Escherichia coli) growth. Only 58% of the households have toilet facilities while the remaining uses different unsanitary methods. More than half (59%) reported washing hand always after toilet use and after handling children’s feces, although only 37% of them reported the use of soap and water. The most common health problem in the community was diarrheal diseases with a prevalence rate of 61%. Conclusion: Some drinking water source had significant coliform counts, and large proportion of households does not have sanitary facilities with the diarrheal disease being the major health problem.

Microbiological and Physicochemical Analysis of Old Sokoto Abattoir Wastewater (Sewage) Contaminated with Blacksmith Activities

The physicochemical and microbiological characteristics of wastewater samples from Old Sokoto Abattoir in Sokoto North Local Government Area, Sokoto state, Nigeria were studied over four weeks period. The physicochemical parameters of the wastewater samples studied namely pH, temperature, biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), dissolved oxygen (DfO), phosphate, nitrate, and chemical oxygen demand (COD) were within the standard limit for wastewater to be discharged into the environment. Heavy metals like nickel, copper, and lead were not detected (ND) except for iron with a concentration range from 0-0.64 mg/L. Wastewater samples for week 1 had a higher bacterial count of 270x105 CFU/mL than wastewater samples for the other weeks. The total viable count for all the samples exceeded the limit of 1x102 CFU/mL, which was between 4.1x105 – 27.0x105. All the wastewater samples were found to harbour coliform organisms in numbers greater than the required WHO standard (1x102 CFU/mL) for water. The MPN count of wastewater was ranged from 190-1100 MPN/100 mL. The bacterial species isolated were E. coli (33.3%), E. aerogenes (20%), S. aureus (6.66%), K. pneumoniae (6.66%), Proteus vulgaris (13.3%), Citrobater freundii (6.66%), Bacillus licheniformis (6.66%), and Bacillus spp. The fungal isolates were Mucor spp (12.5%), Aspergillus niger (37.5%), Aspergillus terreus (12.5%), Sporothrix schenkii (12.5%), Rhodotorula spp. (12.5%), and Penicillium spp. (12.5%). This study showed that the isolation and population of microorganisms from wastewater in Old Sokoto Abattoir is an indication that the wastewater was highly polluted with microbial load and can cause an environmental hazard if not treated.

Nutritional composition and microbial load of <i>Eugenia caryophyllus</i> and <i>Piper guineense</i> spices

This study determined the proximate composition, mineral content and microbial load of Eugenia caryophyllus (EC) and Piper guineense (PG) obtained from Garki (gk), Wuse (ws) and Karmo (km) markets of FCT, Abuja in order to ascertain the nutritional value and their safety from being contaminated with heavy metals or microbes. The results obtained for proximate (moisture ash, fibre, protein, lipid and carbohydrates) analysis, mineral content and microbial load were within the following ranges 6.14-9.07% and 6.00-7.00% (moisture), 5.79-8.04% and 5.28-7.64% (ash), 5.44-8.62% and 6.32-8.28% (fibre),1.02-1.93% and 1.37-2.54% (protein), 2.33-7.78% and 5.33-7.34% (lipid),67.53-73.84% and 69.20-75.02% (carbohydrates); 0.1-6.5μg/g and 3.05-5.85μ g/g (Energy value); 2.006-2.6672kcal/100g (Cr), 0- 868.4 μg/g and 244-326.4μg/g (Fe), 43.45-46.75 μg/g and 9.65-81.45μg/g (Mn), 57.45-115.35 μg/g and 54- 96.9 μg/g (Mg), 233.05-261μg/g and 216.15-234.65μg/g (K), 0.25-6.80μg/g and 15.65-20.10μg/g (Zn) and 12.15- 62.90μg/g and 19.4-29.90μg/g (Pb). ANOVA results of the parameters analyzed range from significant difference (˂0.0001) to no significance difference (0.1862) among the samples. The microbial load indicated total viable count range of 1.41×10 2 cfu - 2.04×10 2 cfu for Piper guineense and 0.19×10 2 cfu - 0.69 x 10 2 cfu for Eugenia caryophyllus , while yeast/mould, coliform and pathogenic organisms were not detected. Both spices have low level of most of the proximate values with the exception of carbohydrate; but they are rich in minerals. All the samples contained lead above WHO limits (10μg/g) established for herbal medicines. Keywords: Spices; Nutritional value; Mineral content; Microbial load