Coincidence Site Lattice Research Articles

Enhancing mechanical property and corrosion resistance of Al0.3CoCrFeNi1.5 high entropy alloy via grain boundary engineering

In the present study, to improve the performances of Al0.3CoCrFeNi1.5 high entropy alloys (HEAs), grain boundary character distribution (GBCD) of Al0.3CoCrFeNi1.5 HEA has been optimized by an appropriate thermo-mechanical processing. The experiment results showed that the fraction of low-Σ coincidence site lattice (CSL) boundaries could reach approximately 80 % through cold rolling with deformation of 8 % and subsequent annealing at 1050 °C for 5 min. The reason for GBCD optimization could be attributed to sufficient strain-induced boundary migration (SIBM) or grain growth after recrystallization. While recrystallization is not favorable for optimizing GBCD. The mechanical properties and corrosion resistance have been enhanced, with a more pronounced improvement observed in the corrosion resistance. The corrosion current density icorr of the GBEM specimen stands at 0.23 μA∙cm−2, representing a reduction of 66 % in comparison to the BM specimen (0.68 μA∙cm−2). The improvement of corrosion resistance of Al0.3CoCrFeNi1.5 HEA resulted from the discontinuous random grain boundaries (RGBs) broken by the high fraction of low-ΣCSL boundaries, especially Σ3 boundaries suppressed the propagation of corrosion crack.

Influence of TiC particle size on microstructural evolution and fracture mechanism of TiC/Al-Cu composites

Using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD), and molecular dynamics simulations, this work investigated the microstructure, texture evolution, strengthening mechanisms, and fracture progression of TiC/Al-Cu composites with various particle sizes following hot extrusion and heat treatment. TiC particles significantly refine grain sizes, shifting the dominant coincidence site lattice (CSL) boundaries from Σ5 to Σ3. The addition of TiC particles alters the preferred grain orientation from (111)/ED to (001)/ED, and modifies the type and intensity of the texture. The primary strengthening mechanisms attributed to TiC include grain boundary strengthening, dislocation strengthening, Orowan strengthening, and load transfer strengthening. However, the strong tendency of smaller TiC particles to agglomerate substantially diminishes these strengthening effects; thus, under a TiC addition of 0.5 wt%, larger TiC particles exhibit better mechanical properties. Fractographic analysis and molecular dynamics simulations revealed that microcracks originate from dissociation at the interfaces between the TiC agglomerates and the Al matrix. The subsequent propagation, expansion, and interconnection of multiple crack initiation sites lead to the formation of macroscopic cracks that result in material failure.

Influences of symmetric tilt grain boundary on the stretching deformation behaviors of Cu bicrystals

The microstructure of grain boundary (GB) becomes an important factor affecting the strength of nanomaterials during plastic deformation. In this work, Cu bicrystals with different coincidence site lattice (CSL) interfaces are constructed, and the influences of the symmetric tilt interface on the mechanical properties and plastic deformation behaviors during uniaxial tension are studied by molecular dynamics simulation. The results indicate that the peak stress of tensile stress-strain curves for most bicrystals is lower than its monocrystalline samples, except CSL3, CSL11 and CSL57 bicrystals with a continuous and single structural unit. The CSL3 bicrystal has the highest strength, while CSL33 bicrystal has the lowest strength among all the tested samples. The CSL11 and CSL57 bicrystals with a lower GB energy have a higher stability of interface, which delays the yielding. Moreover, the generation of twin and stair-rod dislocation at the interfaces strengthens the CSL11 and CSL57 bicrystals. The CSL3 almost has the same parameters as its monocrystalline sample S3, massive research has confirmed that the sample with a higher density twin (CSL3 interface) exhibits higher combined properties of strength and plasticity. This work may provide a guideline for GB engineering to improve material properties by controlling the GB structure.

Metastable phase transformations and mechanical properties of an as-extruded TiAl-based alloy during two-step heat treatment

Metastable phase transformations of TiAl-based alloys provide a pathway for grain refinement and performance improvement. In this paper, the microstructure evolution of an as-extruded Ti-47Al-2Cr-0.2Mo alloy during quenching and tempering was investigated by scanning electron microscope (SEM), electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) and transmission electron microscope (TEM), and the mechanical properties of the alloy were further evaluated by tensile tests. The results indicated that the analogous Σ3 coincidence site lattice (CSL) and γ/γ true twin interface appeared in both the Widmanstätten structure (γw) and feathery structure (γf), implying that sympathetic nucleation mechanism was responsible for the nucleation of the metastable phases. A 6 H intermediate phase with the long period stacking ordered structure (LPSO) was discovered after short-term water quenching, which provided an evidence supplement of the sympathetic nucleation mechanism. The transformation path of the metastable γw phase was proposed to follow the sequence of α/α2→6 H→γ. Apparent refinements of both grains and α2/γ lamellar colonies ((α2+γ)L) were exhibited after metastable phase transformation. The ultimate tensile strengths of the heat-treated alloy at whether room temperature (RT) or 800 °C were obviously improved, and the elongation at RT also kept at a considerable level.

Hydrogen embrittlement in Nickel oligocrystals: Experimentation and crystal plasticity-phase field fracture modeling

This work investigates the hydrogen embrittlement (HE) behavior of Nickel-201 alloy using experimental and numerical approaches. In experimentation, the effect of electrochemical hydrogen charging on the deformation behavior of tensile oligocrystals is investigated at different strain rates. Irrespective of the strain rate levels, all the hydrogen-charged tensile oligocrystals exhibited intergranular (IG) fracture exclusively along the random high-angle grain boundaries (RHAGBs). At the same time, no crack was observed along the coincident site lattice (CSL) Σ3 type grain boundaries. The absence of an interconnected grain boundary network, lower stress levels, and insensitivity of H-induced IG fracture to the strain rate levels of investigated FCC oligocrystals (with low lattice hydrogen diffusion coefficient) established the insignificance of dynamic H-redistribution toward HE. In numerical simulations, a crystal plasticity-phase field fracture finite element model simulates the macroscopic tensile response and corresponding microscopic fracture evolution behavior for hydrogen-free and hydrogen-charged tensile oligocrystals. The experimental results corroborated by numerical simulations, validate that the reduction in fracture energy of RHAGBs, induced by hydrogen segregation through thermodynamic equilibrium during hydrogen charging prior to deformation, is the dominating factor governing HE.

Evolution and mechanism of recrystallization microstructure and texture in GH3536 superalloy foil and their influence on strength performance

To achieve isotropic strength in GH3536 foil, this study investigated the influence mechanism of initial recrystallization microstructure and texture characteristics of GH3536 superalloy foil with different cold-rolled reduction rates (referring to the reduction rate in thickness) on annealing recrystallization microstructure, including secondary recrystallization microstructure, and texture. This was studied by controlling the cold-rolled reduction rate and annealing temperature, in conjunction with microstructure and texture analysis. Meanwhile, this study clarified the dependency of strength performance on recrystallization microstructure and texture. The results of this study indicate that the Coincidence Site Lattice (CSL) grain boundaries and High Energy (HE) grain boundaries did not show significant superiorities, and were not the primary reasons for the formation of Brass ({011}<211>) and Goss ({011}<100>) textures, as well as secondary recrystallization. Instead, by controlling the cold-rolled reduction rate, the initial recrystallization stage formed a significant quantity and size superiority of α-fiber texture ({110}∥ND) in each grain size range. This led to preferential growth, and even abnormal growth of Brass and Goss grains in subsequent high-temperature annealing processes. The control of the α-deformation fiber texture was identified as the driving factor behind the formation of the initial recrystallization texture due to the cold rolling reduction rate. Cold-rolled processes with a deformation amount greater than 40 % yielded a quantity superiority of α-fiber texture shear bands and an appropriate stored energy advantage. This facilitated the nucleation and effective growth of more α grains, while suppressing the random growth of grains with γ-fiber texture ({111}∥ND). Ultimately, a quantity and size superiority was achieved in the initial recrystallization stage. The tensile strength of GH3536 foil was controlled by grain size and texture. By controlling the deformation amount to approximately 30 %, GH3536 foil was successfully produced with no pronounced orientation texture and isotropic strength.

Improved properties of additively prepared Inconel 718 alloy post-processed with a new heat treatment

In this study, an alternative heat-treatment route has been explored to optimize the mechanical as well as the fatigue properties of Ni-based 718 alloy fabricated using additive methods. The test coupons were prepared using the laser-based powder bed fusion technique and post-processed with a new heat-treatment condition (NHT): solution treatment at 1130°C for 2hr followed by water cooling (WC) and the artificial aging at 730°C for 13hr followed by furnace cooling (FC). It was found that the NHT parameters enhanced the mechanical properties as well as the fatigue properties as compared to the standard heat-treatment (SHT) conditions: solution treatment at 980°C-1hr-FC followed by two-step artificial aging 720°C-8hr-FC(55°C/hr up to 620°C) + 620°C-8hr-FC. The NHT condition resulted in a more homogenized and recrystallized microstructure with a higher volume fraction of γ′ and γ′′ precipitates, high-angle coincidence site lattice (CSL) as well as the twin boundaries and marginally reduced grain size. The microhardness, tensile strength, and fatigue strength after the NHT condition were improved by ∼15%, ∼16%, and ∼12.5%, respectively, and it was mainly accredited to the high volume fraction of fine strengthening precipitates and homogenized microstructure.

Grain boundary junction disclinations in nanoparticles

Grain boundary junction (GBJ) disclinations are ubiquitous at the nanoscale in icosahedra and decahedra. These structural motifs consist of several tetrahedra sharing a twin grain boundary. According to the coincident site lattice (CSL) theory this twin grain boundary is referred to as Σ3<110>{111} grain boundary. In the present work, GBJ disclinations involving a low energy grain boundary Σ11<110>{113} are reported. Σ3−Σ3−Σ11 triple junction disclination is energetically preferred at the nanoscale as opposed to the ideal (without any misorientation mismatch) Σ3−Σ3−Σ9 triple junction. Molecular dynamics simulations are employed to study the disclinations in three dynamical processes key for nanoparticle synthesis − growth, coalescence, and solidification; across three metal systems Ag, Cu, and Pt which cover a range of stacking fault energies. Results indicate that Pt has a higher preference for disclinations while they are almost non-existent in Cu and to a lesser degree in Ag. Several types of disclinations have been identified and catalogued. Gaussian images (used as a proxy for simulating scanning transmission electron microscopy high angle annular dark field images) reveal that some of the disclinations induce artifacts which makes it non-trivial to identify them even when they are present in experimental particles. A key characteristic of the GBJ disclinations is the rapid change in misorientation angle around Σ11 grain boundary with distance away from the disclination. In this scenario, there is a need to reassess the methodology currently in use for identification of grain boundary type at the nanoscale.

Optimization of the grain boundary network and tensile properties of powder metallurgy-hot isostatic pressed Ni-based alloy Inconel 625

Powder metallurgy-hot isostatic pressing (PM-HIPing) is an advanced manufacturing technology for large-sized and complex-shaped components for nuclear applications. In the present study, a novel PM-HIPing strategy was proposed to optimize the grain boundary network and tensile properties of Ni-based alloy Inconel 625, and it was verified by a series of experiments. Samples with 69 % and 74 % of coincidence site lattice (CSL) grain boundaries were obtained when the narrow-size ranged powder was consolidated at 1140 °C and 1180 °C, respectively. The fraction of CSL grain boundaries was further increased to ∼78.5 % after a high temperature solution treatment. Room temperature yield strength and ultimate tensile strength of PM-HIPed alloy 625 were comparable to that of the wrought specimens, elongation of the specimens was ∼56–60 %, the samples all featured with dimple ductile dominant fracture mode.

Evolution of microstructure and grain boundaries during annealing of high-purity tantalum materials

The microstructure and texture evolution of tantalum (Ta) during annealing were studied in this work, in addition to simulating and analyzing of the grain boundary motions and their interactions using molecular dynamics simulations (MD). The results showed that the evolution of the recrystallized texture in the surface region of Ta is different from that in the core region. Coincident site lattice (CSL) is significantly related to the grain orientation and thus directly affects the recrystallization texture. MD results showed that the grain boundary mobility rate is higher at low angle grain boundaries (LAGB), which implied that the mobility rate is influenced by the tilt angle. Lower mobility rate of high angle grain boundary (HAGB) possibly caused by a large number of stabilized Σ3 grain boundaries (GBs) between them. It is shown that the inhomogeneous distribution of the recrystallization texture during the annealing process can be possibly attributed to the presence of a large number of Σ3 GBs.

Novel role of thermomechanical grain boundary engineering in the microstructure evolution of austenitic stainless steel

The effect of special grain boundary development via the grain boundary engineering process (GBE) was explored in a bimodal microstructured 316L austenitic stainless steel with an average grain size of 1.92 μm. The GBE process was carried out by the rolling-annealing method via two routes of low and medium applied strain, followed by a short annealing period in a single-step and iterative manner. The grain boundary character distribution was obtained by Electron Backscatter Diffraction (EBSD) analysis, and the intergranular corrosion resistance and the tensile behavior of the samples were examined. Microstructural characterization showed that applying low strain repetitively increased the coincidence site lattice (CSL) and Σ3 boundaries percentage and created large twin-related domains (TRD). The reduced sensitization was attributed to a high proportion of CSLs and large-sized TRDs by applying a low-strain route. In the early stages of the low-strain route, the grain boundary character distribution showed a high number of primary twin nuclei in coarse grains and a continuous network of single twin nuclei in smaller grains, creating a high percentage of Σ3-grain boundaries. The low applied strain and the absence of the necessary driving force for the recrystallization and GBs migration led to the formation of twin nuclei, which would assist with the reduction of microstructure energy. A high percentage of Σ3 boundaries and an increase in the percentage of triple points consisting of low energy boundaries were found to be influential factors in increasing elongation.

Evolution of Grain Boundary Character Distribution in B10 Alloy from Friction Stir Processing to Annealing Treatment.

In this study, the grain boundary character distribution (GBCD) of a B10 alloy was optimized, employing thermomechanical processing consisting of friction stirring processing (FSP) and annealing treatment. Using electron backscatter diffraction, the effects of rotational speed of FSP and annealing time on the evolution of GBCD were systematically investigated. The GBCD evolution was analyzed concerning various parameters, such as the fraction of low-Σ coincidence site lattice (CSL) boundaries, the average number of grains per twin-related domain (TRD), the length of longest chain (LLC), and the triple junction distribution. The experimental results revealed that the processing of a 1400 rpm rotational speed of FSP followed by annealing at 750 °C for 60 min resulted in the optimum grain boundary engineering (GBE) microstructure with the highest fraction of low-Σ CSL boundaries being 82.50% and a significantly fragmented random boundary network, as corroborated by the highest average number of grains per TRD (14.73) with the maximum LLC (2.14) as well as the highest J2/(1 - J3) value (12.76%). As the rotational speed of FSP increased from 600 rpm to 1400 rpm, the fraction of low-Σ CSL boundaries monotonously increased. The fraction of low-Σ CSL boundaries first increased and then decreased with an increase in annealing time. The key to achieving GBE lies in inhibiting the recrystallization phenomenon while stimulating abundant multiple twinning events through strain-induced boundary migration.

Chromium partitioning induced evolution of texture, grain boundary constitution, and corrosion behavior of Cu[sbnd]Cr coatings electrodeposited at different temperatures

The corrosion behavior of CuCr coating electrodeposited at three different temperatures (15 °C, 30 °C, 45 °C) was examined. Cr is partitioned in the grain boundaries and as a solute in the Cu matrix. The formation of Cr-oxide at the grain boundaries enhanced the corrosion resistance of the coatings, whereas the presence of Cr as solute significantly altered the matrix micro-texture. The 15 °C deposited coating exhibited the lowest corrosion rate due to higher Cr solute, smaller grain size, (111) surface texture, and a higher fraction of coincidence site lattices. The 45 °C deposited coating exhibited the highest corrosion rate due to lower Cr solute, higher energy (110) surface texture, and higher fraction of high energy grain boundaries.

Interplay between high-temperature creep deformation behavior and nanoscale precipitate evolution in a newly designed Fe–Ni-based superalloy

In an endeavor to achieve the critical goals of carbon neutrality, an explorative study was conducted to scrutinize the precipitate evolution and high-temperature creep behavior of an innovative and cost-effective Fe–Ni-based superalloy that was meticulously engineered for the next-generation ultra-supercritical (USC) power plants. The creep experiments conducted at temperatures and stresses of 650 °C/280 MPa (17,179 h), 675 °C/250 MPa (10,271 h), and 700 °C/250 MPa (2378 h), coupled with proficient data fitting were employed to accurately assess the long-term service performance of the superalloy under real-world operational environments. Though it can withstand theoretically an intense stress of 130 MPa at 700 °C for approximately 30 years as calculated by the Larson-Miller equation, its performance was not without a degree of perceived vulnerability. This was primarily traced to the conspicuous coarsening behavior of the precipitate-free zones (PFZs)/discontinuous coarsening zones (DCZs) formed in the grain boundaries (GBs) on a longer time scale. It had a significant diminishing impact on the overall strength of the GBs, resulting in a recorded creep life that was considerably shorter than initially projected. Moreover, a synergistic mechanism between PFZs/DCZs with TiC carbides was advanced to interpret the intergranular fracturing dynamic, which was postulated due to the evidence gathered from electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD), highlighting that the banded distribution of TiC carbides circumambient to GBs engendered considerable stress aggregation. Conversely, the plentiful supply of coincidence site lattice (CSL) boundaries disrupted the continuous network structure of random high-angle grain boundaries (HAGBs), thereby creating an effective barricade against the proliferation of cracks. These empirical findings paved the way for the proposition of an enhanced blueprint and the industrial utilization of such.

Investigation into hydrogen assisted fracture in Nickel oligocrystals

This study investigates the hydrogen embrittlement (HE) behavior of Nickel-201 alloy using the oligocrystal approach. To comprehend the influence of microstructure toward HE, various types of tensile oligocrystals (True-oligocrystals, Quasi-oligocrystals, Identical-oligocrystals, and Bi-crystal type oligocrystals) with diverse microstructure (in terms of Schmid factor distribution and grain boundary types) are generated using a combination of heat treatment and slicing method. The electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) analysis is used to validate the development of the desired tensile oligocrystal samples. Identical oligocrystal samples established the transition in fracture mode from ductile transgranular (TG) to brittle intergranular (IG), solely driven by hydrogen uptake. Post-tensile deformation analysis validated the hydrogen-induced IG fracture initiation and propagation along the random high-angle grain boundaries (RHAGBs) only. Bi-crystal type oligocrystals with low angle grain boundaries (LAGBs) and coincident-site lattice (CSL) Σ3 grain boundaries exhibited resistance to hydrogen-induced intergranular fracture, thus establishing the ‘special’ nature of these grain boundaries against the HE under current testing conditions.

Characterization of coincidence site lattices generated by the composition of simple reflections of cubic lattices

This work provides a comprehensive characterization of coincidence site lattices that arise from the compositions of the reflections of cubic lattices. For this purpose, we apply Cartan's theorem and use reflections as basic isometries, which allows the use of Clifford algebra as a powerful tool to handle reflections and products of reflections, leading to explicit expressions for coincidence indices and the basis of coincidence lattices. The three possible cases were studied: simple reflections, the product of two reflections (rotations), and the product of three reflections, where a factorization that produces improper rotations was provided. In the case of rotations, it is formally proven that Ranganathan's well‐known generating function of coincidence indices for cubic systems under rotations yields all possible coincidence lattices. Overall, this study provides valuable insights into the mathematical properties of coincidence site lattices and the use of Clifford algebras to describe orthogonal transformations.

Twisting two-dimensional iron sulfide layers into coincident site superlattices via intercalation chemistry.

Layered van der Waals (vdW) materials are susceptible not only to various stacking polymorphs through translations but also twisted structures due to rotations between layers. Here, we study the influence of such layer-to-layer twisting through the intercalation of ethylenediamine (EDA) molecules into tetragonal iron sulfide (Mackinawite FeS). Selected area electron diffraction patterns of intercalated FeS display reflections corresponding to multiple square lattices with a fixed angle between them, contrary to a single square lattice seen in the unintercalated phase. The observed twist angles of 49.13° and 22.98° result from a superstructure formation well described by the coincident site lattice (CSL) theory. According to the CSL theory, these measured twist angles lead to the formation of larger coincident site supercells. We build these CSL models for FeS using crystallographic group-subgroup transformations and find simulated electron diffraction patterns from the model to agree with the experimentally measured data.

Formation and strengthening mechanism of kink bands in an ultra-coarse-grained Fe-Cr-Al alloy

Fe-Cr-Al alloys, owing to their absence of allotropic transformation, require multiple cycles of rolling and recrystallization annealing processes to achieve substantial grain refinement, ultimately leading to the attainment of outstanding mechanical properties. However, the corresponding manufacturing costs will also increase greatly. In this work, we have proposed a new microstructural preparation process. Simply using warm rolling for an ultra-coarse-grained Fe-Cr-Al alloy to introduce lamellar kink bands (KBs) into the matrix, the mechanical properties can be significantly improved. By using electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and combined with Schmid factor (SF) calculation, the formation mechanism of KBs has been revealed. When the slip plane and direction are nearly perpendicular to the loading force direction (LFD) during the continuous grain rotation, the dislocation wall will evolve into the KBs boundaries. Simultaneously, a huge orientation separation between the matrix and KBs will be produced. As strain continues to rise, KBs undergo a transformation, transitioning from low-angle-grain boundaries (LAGBs) to high-angle-grain boundaries (HAGBs), occasionally adopting a configuration as coincident site lattice (CSL) boundaries with reduced interface energy. Results of the tensile test, cyclic loading-unloading-reloading tensile test, and the strengthening calculation show that KBs can pronouncedly enhance the strength by their heterogeneous refinement on the original grains and hetero-deformation induced (HDI) strengthening effect from the dislocation density discrepancy between the matrix and internal KBs, the grains containing KBs (KBGs) and the grains without KBs (or KBs-free-grains, KFGs). The theoretical calculation value of the strengthening contribution from KBs on yield strength can be up to 225.5 MPa, with a minimum value exceeding 153 MPa. On the other hand, the ductility can be retained to some extent through stimulating the KBs boundary delamination mechanism. The present study provides a low-cost and feasible processing method for fabricating Fe-Cr-Al alloy with high strength and good ductility.

Bicrystallography-informed Frenkel–Kontorova model for interlayer dislocations in strained 2D heterostructures

In recent years, van der Waals (vdW) heterostructures and homostructures, which consist of stacks of two-dimensional (2D) materials, have risen to prominence due to their association with exotic quantum phenomena originating from correlated electronic states harbored by them. Atomistic scale relaxation effects play an extremely important role in the electronic scale quantum physics of these systems, providing means of manipulation of these materials and allowing them to be tailored for emergent technologies. We investigate such structural relaxation effects in this work using atomistic and mesoscale models, within the context of twisted bilayer graphene — a well-known heterostructure system that features moiré patterns arising from the lattices of the two graphene layers. For small twist angles, atomic relaxation effects in this system are associated with the natural emergence of interface dislocations or strain solitons, which result from the cyclic nature of the generalized stacking fault energy (GSFE), that measures the interface energy based on the relative movement of the two layers. In this work, we first demonstrate using atomistic simulations that atomic reconstruction in bilayer graphene under a large twist also results from interface dislocations, although the Burgers vectors of such dislocations are considerably smaller than those observed in small-twist systems. To reveal the translational invariance of the heterointerface responsible for the formation of such dislocations, we derive the translational symmetry of the GSFE of a 2D heterostructure using the notions of coincident site lattices (CSLs) and displacement shift complete lattices (DSCLs). The workhorse for this exercise is a recently developed Smith normal form bicrystallography framework. Next, we construct a bicrystallography-informed and frame-invariant Frenkel–Kontorova model, which can predict the formation of strain solitons in arbitrary 2D heterostructures, and apply it to study a heterostrained, large-twist bilayer graphene system. Our mesoscale model is found to produce results consistent with atomistic simulations. We anticipate that the model will be invaluable in predicting structural relaxation and for providing insights into various heterostructure systems, especially in cases where the fundamental unit cell is large and therefore, atomistic simulations are computationally expensive.

Effect of grain boundary engineering on corrosion behavior of 316 L stainless steel bipolar plate in proton exchange membrane fuel cells environment

This study illustrates the effect of grain boundary engineering (GBE) on the corrosion behavior of 316 L stainless steel (SS) in a proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) environment. It shows that the GBE increased the density of grain boundary and the coincidence site lattice (CSL) performes a better corrosion resistance, a preferential corrosion phase that the impurity elements are more likely biased at during the cast, the Random grain boundaries(RGBs) decreases. Furthermore, the texture on GBE2's closed-packed (111) plane reduces the surface atoms' dissolution velocity, thereby, decreasing the thermodynamic tendency to form dense corrosion films and nucleation kinetics. The above combined reasons lead to the lowest corrosion resistance of GBE2.