Cognitive Training Techniques Research Articles

Math Modules— A Theoretical Review and Cognitive Training Programme

The abstract outlines the content of a review on Math Modules, a program designed to facilitate the learning of foundational math skills through cognitive training techniques that are based on theory with a special focus on planning and executive functions, encompassing cognitive flexibility, attentional control, and working memory. The guiding educational principle is drawn from Vygotsky's concept of zones of proximal development, highlighting the belief that children can accomplish tasks with assistance that they may struggle with independently. In a way, the structure of cognitive training Modules can be viewed as an attempt at construct validity. A review of historical roots of Math modules is presented at some length. The program begins with the division of training the two key components of math proficiency: computing and solving word problems. Both rely on five essential skills.

Different pedagogical approaches to motor imagery both demonstrate individualized movement patterns to achieve improved performance outcomes when learning a complex motor skill.

Cognitive training techniques such as motor imagery (MI)-cognitive simulation of movement, has been found to successfully facilitate skill acquisition. The MI literature emphasizes the need to accurately imitate key elements of motor execution to facilitate improved performance outcomes. However, there is a scarcity of MI research investigating how contemporary approaches to motor learning, such as nonlinear pedagogy (NLP), can be integrated into MI practice. Grounded in an ecological dynamics approach to human movement, NLP proposes that skilled action is an emergent process that results from continuous interactions between perceptual information of the environment and movement. This emergent process can be facilitated by the manipulation of key task constraints that aim to encourage learners to explore movement solutions that satisfy individual constraints (e.g., height and weight) and achieve successful performance outcomes. The aim of the present study was to explore the application of a NLP approach to MI approach for skill acquisition. Fourteen weightlifting beginners (two female and 12 male) participated in a 4-week intervention involving either NLP (i.e. analogy-based instructions and manipulation of task constraints) or a linear pedagogy (LP; prescriptive instructions of optimal technique, repetition of same movement form) to learn a complex weightlifting derivative. Performance accuracy, movement criterion (barbell trajectory type), kinematic data, and quantity of exploration/exploitation were measured pre-mid-post intervention. No significant differences (p = .438) were observed in the amount of exploration between LP (EER = 0.41) and NLP (EER = 0.26) conditions. Equivalent changes in rearward displacement (R×D) were observed with no significant differences between conditions for technique assessments 1, 2, or 3 (p = .13 - .67). Both NLP and LP conditions were found to primarily demonstrate 'sub-optimal' type 3 barbell trajectories (NLP = 72%; LP = 54%). These results suggest that MI instructions prescribing a specific movement form (i.e., LP condition) are ineffective in restricting available movements to a prescribed technique but rather the inherent task constraints appear to 'force' learners to explore alternative movement solutions to achieve successful performance outcomes. Although MI instructions prescribing specific techniques have previously supported improved skill development, the current findings indicate that learners may self-organise their movements regardless of MI instructions to satisfy individual and task constraints while achieving improved performance. Therefore, it may be beneficial to consider scripts that are more outcome focused and incorporate task constraints to facilitate learners' inherent exploration of individual task solutions.

33 Depressive Symptoms Drive the Underutilization of Cognitive Reappraisal in Veterans with PTSD

Objective:Adaptive emotional regulation strategies, such as cognitive reappraisal, are related to better neuropsychological functioning in the general population. Individuals with PTSD demonstrate difficulty with both emotional regulation and cognitive performance that contribute to clinical presentation (e.g., negative mood, irritability). However the extent to which neuropsychological functioning is associated with emotion regulation, alone and in concert with common comorbid symptoms like depression, remains understudied in this population. Better understanding how specific neuropsychological functions relate to cognitive reappraisal could point to novel treatment targets given preliminary evidence that certain cognitive training techniques can improves neuropsychological and affective outcomes. The present study aims to investigate the relationship between clinical symptoms of PTSD and depression, working memory capacity, and cognitive reappraisal in Veterans with PTSD. We hypothesized that clinical symptoms and working memory capacity would interact to predict cognitive reappraisal, such that elevated depression would relate to worse cognitive reappraisal, particularly for individuals with poor working memory capacity.Participants and Methods:Measures of working memory (symmetry span task), mental health symptomatology (Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale for DSM-5 (CAPS-5) and Beck Depression Inventory-II (BDI-II), and emotional regulation (Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (ERQ)) were collected in 38 Veterans. A regression analysis was conducted with total CAPS score, total BDI score, total symmetry span score, and the interaction between BDI score and symmetry span score as the independent variables and total ERQ cognitive reappraisal score as the dependent variable.Results:When examining each predictor independently, cognitive reappraisal was not associated with working memory (t=1.42, p=.165), but was significantly associated with PTSD (t=-3.17, p<.003) and depressive (t=-4.15, p<.001) symptom severity. The multiple regression model (F(4, 35)=4.45, p<.005, R2=.26) did not support the hypothesized relationship between working memory and depressive symptoms (t=0.56, p=.579). Depression independently predicted utilization of cognitive reappraisal in veterans with PTSD (t=2.43, p=.020) but PTSD symptom severity and working memory scores did not. However, additional investigation revealed that independently, greater PTSD symptom severity did predict less utilization of cognitive reappraisal (t=-3.17, p<.005).Conclusions:While depressive symptoms did not moderate the relationship between working memory and cognitive reappraisal, depressive symptoms did best predict utilization of cognitive reappraisal in a population with PTSD. Contrary to the hypothesized outcome, neither working memory nor PTSD symptoms were significant predictors of cognitive reappraisal when controlling for depressive symptoms. This suggests that the phenomenon of lower cognitive reappraisal rates in individuals with PTSD may be due to the presence of depressive symptoms rather than traumatic stress symptoms or neuropsychological ability. Due to the sample size and homogeneous diagnosis of the current study it is possible that the predicted relationship between working memory, PTSD severity, and cognitive reappraisal was not observed due to low power or a restricted range. Further investigation specifically in clinical populations on factors that predict utilization of cognitive reappraisal could expand on these findings in populations experiencing other stress-based disorders.

Is Training Working Memory in Children with Learning Disabilities a Viable Solution? A Systematic Review.

Working memory (WM) is one of the most influential cognitive functions in encoding, registering, and retrieving information. It influences the learning process in children. Its role becomes essential, especially in a child with a learning disability (LD). Researchers worldwide are giving much prominence to WM, especially in devising cognitive retraining strategies for better cognitive functioning and academic attainment in these children. This current study aims to explore globally used instruments to measure this construct and review effective WM training models in the cognitive rehabilitation of children with LD. This study used a systematic review, availing the elaborate "Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analysis (PRISMA)" guidelines. The databases of Google Scholar, PubMed, and Web of Science were searched thoroughly, and those studies, which met the inclusion criteria, were considered for this review. Out of 770 studies found with keywords, only six met the inclusion criteria and were selected for a detailed analysis. The outcome of the current review provides trustworthy evidence of poor performance, especially in tasks involving verbal and executive WM in children with all types of learning disabilities (LD) and difficulties. The studies reviewed support the hypothesis that WM can improve with training and significantly improve children's academic attainment. Further this review recommends that research and efforts must go into devising these cognitive training techniques. Children have high cerebral plasticity; hence, using cognitive training (emphasizing WM training and other cognitive functions) with them would enhance their cognitive functioning and capacity, improving their academic performance.

Toward rational use of cognitive training in those with mild cognitive impairment.

The term cognitive training includes a range of techniques that hold potential for treating cognitive impairment caused by neurologic injury and disease. Our central premise is that these techniques differ in their mechanisms of action and therefore engage distinct brain regions (or neural networks). We support this premise using data from a single-blind randomized-controlled trial in which patients with mild cognitive impairment were randomized to either mnemonic strategy training (MST) or spaced retrieval training (SRT) as they learned ecologically relevant object-location associations. Both training approaches were highly effective in the short term, but MST demonstrated a clear advantage after days to weeks. MST also increased activation in and functional connectivity between frontal, temporal, and parietal regions as well as the hippocampus. In contrast, patterns of reduced activation and functional connectivity were evident following SRT. These findings support the rational development of cognitive training techniques.

Racism in Pain Medicine: We Can and Should Do More

Racism in Pain Medicine: We Can and Should Do More

Computerized Training for Neuroplasticity and Cognitive Improvement

The research area of brain plasticity studies indicates that individuals can train and improve their cognitive abilities throughout life. In addition, more and more computerized training tools are presented in recent studies. The purpose of this study is to represent studies of the last decade in the field of cognitive training with the use of Information and Communication Tech-nologies, to record the cognitive improvement techniques used, as well as to evaluate the effectiveness of these intervention programs. As indicated by the literature review, computer-based tools, mobile training apps and video games could be used in intervention studies for cognitive improve-ment. In addition, cognitive training techniques seem to be significantly ef-fective for the cognitive improvement of healthy or cognitive impaired in-dividuals.

Cognitive training techniques and strategies in people with mild cognitive impairment

Mild cognitive impairment is the intermediate state between normal aging and dementia, which is considered as the best intervention window period to delay or reverse cognitive impairment. This paper summarizes the cognitive training techniques and challenges in Community-dwelling Elderly with mild cognitive impairment, which includes strategy-based cognitive train, process-based cognitive train, multi-mode comprehensive train, computer-aided cognitive train, and in order to provide theoretical support for the practice of cognitive training. Key words: Mild cognition disorders; Aged; Cognitive intervention

An examination of the moderating effects of neurophysiology on treatment outcomes from cognitive training in schizophrenia-spectrum disorders

BackgroundImpairments in neurocognition and community functioning are core features of schizophrenia and cognitive training techniques have been developed with the aim of improving these impairments. While cognitive training has produced reliable improvements in neurocognition and functioning, little is known about factors that moderate treatment response. Electroencephalographic (EEG) measures provide a neurophysiological indicator of cognitive functions that may moderate treatment outcomes from cognitive training. MethodsData from a clinical trial comparing two cognitive training approaches in schizophrenia-spectrum disorders were utilized in the current report. Cluster analysis was conducted to identify participant clusters based on baseline P300, mismatch negativity (MMN), and theta power during an n-back task, and the EEG measures were also examined as continuous predictors of treatment response. ResultsThree clusters were identified based on the baseline EEG variables; however, there were no significant differences in treatment response across the three clusters. Higher P300 amplitude and theta power during the n-back at baseline were significantly associated with greater improvements in a cognitive composite score post-treatment. None of the EEG measures were significantly associated with treatment outcomes in specific cognitive domains or community functioning. Change in EEG measures from baseline to post-treatment was not significantly associated with durability of cognitive or functional change at 12-week follow-up. ConclusionsClusters derived from the EEG measures were not significantly associated with either neurocognitive or functional outcomes. P300 and n-back theta power may be associated with learning-related processes, which are important for acquisition and retention of skills during cognitive training programs. Future research should aim to identify at an individual level who is likely to respond to specific forms of cognitive enhancement.

Training and Performance: A Sign from Saudi Service Organizations

The aim of this study is to explore the effect of training on organizational performance. Training techniques were categorized into two types: behavioural training techniques (on-the-job training) and cognitive training techniques (off-the-job training). Three behavioural techniques were selected – monitoring, coaching, and job rotation – and three cognitive techniques – role playing, lectures, and computer-based training. Training as an independent construct was measured based on these behavioural and cognitive techniques. On the other hand, organizational performance was measured based on subjective items related to the operational dimensions of organizations’ performance. A questionnaire-based survey was used to collect data from a sample consisting of 600 employees working at service organizations in Saudi Arabia. Of the questionnaires distributed to the sample, 478 were returned complete and valid for the analysis process. The Statistical Package of Social Sciences (SPSS) version 20 was used to analyse the collected data. The findings of the study confirmed that both behavioural techniques of training were significantly and positively related to organizational performance. In fact, the results identified job rotation as a main practice of on-the-job training techniques that lead to improved organizational performance. There is a statistically significant influence of other dimensions, such as coaching, monitoring, role playing, lectures, and computer-based training, on organizational performance. Despite the positive and direct impact of on-the-job training and off-the-job training on the dependent variable, organizational performance, on-the-job training has a larger impact on this construct. The results are presented and discussed, and recommendations, limitations, and future research directions are provided.

The Causal Role of the Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex in the Modification of Attentional Bias: Evidence from Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation

A pattern of attentional bias for threatening information is thought to be involved in the etiology of anxiety. Consistent with this idea, cognitive training techniques directly targeting such patterns of biased attention have been shown to reduce symptoms of anxiety. Research seeking to establish the neurologic underpinnings of change in the attentional bias for threat have implicated, but not confirmed, the role of lateral prefrontal regions. The current study sought to confirm experimentally the causal role of lateral prefrontal areas in the modification of attentional bias by delivering targeted cortical stimulation during attention bias modification training to assess the consequent effects on attentional bias change. While completing either an "attend threat" or "avoid threat" attention bias modification task, 77 volunteers (17-22 per group) received either active transcranial direct current stimulation of the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex or a sham stimulation control condition. Participants receiving active stimulation showed greater evidence of attentional bias acquisition in the targeted direction (toward or away from threat) compared with participants in the sham stimulation condition. Our findings provide the first experimental evidence that increasing activity in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex leads to greater evidence of attention bias modification. This evidence confirms the role of these areas in facilitating change in the allocation of attention to threat. We believe this study provides a critical step in the translation of neuroimaging findings to novel neuromodulatory interventions capable of enhancing the treatment of emotional pathology.

The aging mind: neuroplasticity in response to cognitive training

Is it possible to enhance neural and cognitive function with cognitive training techniques? Can we delay age-related decline in cognitive function with interventions and stave off Alzheimer's disease? Does an aged brain really have the capacity to change in response to stimulation? In the present paper, we consider the neuroplasticity of the aging brain, that is, the brain's ability to increase capacity in response to sustained experience. We argue that, although there is some neural deterioration that occurs with age, the brain has the capacity to increase neural activity and develop neural scaffolding to regulate cognitive function. We suggest that increase in neural volume in response to cognitive training or experience is a clear indicator of change, but that changes in activation in response to cognitive training may be evidence of strategy change rather than indicative of neural plasticity. We note that the effect of cognitive training is surprisingly durable over time, but that the evidence that training effects transfer to other cognitive domains is relatively limited. We review evidence which suggests that engagement in an environment that requires sustained cognitive effort may facilitate cognitive function.

Perceived Self-Efficacy and Its Role in Education-Related Cognitive Performance in Latino American Elderly

This article describes the methodology, data analysis, and results for a pilot study investigating perceived self-efficacy of cognitive performance among Latino American elderly. The sample included 24 Latino American elderly. A 12-week quasi-experimental design was utilized. Participants were provided with weekly 2-hr art education sessions modeled after art therapy and cognitive training techniques. Cognitive performance was evaluated using the Clock Drawing Test. Perceived self-efficacy of cognitive performance was evaluated using the Cognitive Failures Questionnaire. The results of the study indicated that perceived self-efficacy was significantly correlated to art education/art therapy session attendance among Latino American elderly.

Cognitive training in affective disorders improves memory: A preliminary study using the NEAR approach

Background Neuropsychological deficits in depression include difficulties with psychomotor speed, executive functions and memory. Some of these changes persist despite antidepressant treatment. While research in other areas of psychiatry has shown cognitive training techniques to be effective, only one study has evaluated this approach in depression. Methods Sixteen patients (mean age = 33.5 years) with a lifetime diagnosis of major depressive disorder were administered a standardised battery of neuropsychological tests and allocated to treatment ( n = 8) or waitlist control ( n = 8) conditions. The treatment consisted of 10-weeks of twice weekly cognitive training using the Neuropsychological Educational Approach to Remediation. All participants were re-assessed after 10-weeks by interviewers blinded to group allocation. Results Participants in the treatment condition demonstrated greater improvements on tests of memory encoding and memory retention than the waitlist control group. There were no observable benefits in terms of psychomotor speed or executive functions or in self-reported levels of disability. Affective symptoms also remained stable. Limitations This study included a small sample of participants and treatment allocation was not randomised. Conclusions Cognitive training in affective disorders improves memory performance. It may be an effective non-pharmacological treatment option for improving cognitive functions, which in turn, may improve psychosocial functioning and reduce disability. This study supports theories suggesting cognitive training may promote neuroplasticity.

Should One Use Medications in Combination With Cognitive Training? If So, Which Ones?

In this article, we review current research regarding diagnosis of cognitive impairment in nondemented adults and discuss why medications and cognitive training together may be more beneficial than either alone. We also review potential cognitive enhancers and future research challenges. There are major reasons for such research: (a) Large numbers of older adults without dementia but with cognitive problems are not treatable with current cognitive training techniques; (b) some medications offer a rationale (i.e., cognitive enhancement) and some evidence that they might be a useful adjunct; and (c) there are unanswered questions about which population to target, which medications to use, how to administer them, and issues regarding tolerance and use of appropriate (active) placebo controls. As the number of cognitively impaired older adults grows, it is likely that there will be pressure to treat more broadly with both medications and cognitive training.

A Proposed Model of Neuroplasticity and Cognitive Reserve in Older Adults

The theoretical construct of cognitive reserve is used to explain why some people can sustain more brain pathology due to disease than others before cognitive and everyday functioning become impaired. Several lines of research suggest that cognition may be maintained by taking steps to prevent loss or possibly increase cognitive reserve. These steps could include promoting certain health behaviors, engaging in cognitively stimulating activities, or possibly even using cognitive training techniques. These factors may positively influence the physiological functioning of the brain or may increase the ability to compensate for declines in cognition. Empirical findings related to neuroplasticity are discussed and a hypothetical model of neuroplasticity, cognitive reserve, and cognitive functioning in older adults are presented. Implications of this model for 'real world' or everyday functioning are discussed and directions for future research on maintaining cognitive reserve are provided.

Reading Comprehension: Cognitive Training Contributions

Reading comprehension is a complex cognitive process that presents an opportunity to apply cognitive training techniques. Particularly with reading and learning disabled students, problems in readi...