Cognitive Task Complexity Research Articles

Interactions between task complexity, task repetition, and task motivation in L2 writing

This study explores the interplay between task repetition and task motivation in second language (L2) writing, specifically focusing on syntactic complexity, accuracy, and lexical complexity (CAL). Aligning with Dörnyei’s call to balance cognitive and affective factors in task-based language teaching (TBLT), the research involved 100 advanced mid-level learners of English as a second language (ESL) aged between 18 and 20 years. Participants completed both simple and complex argumentative writing tasks in a counterbalanced order, with a one-week interval between tasks. A perception questionnaire was administered immediately after each task performance to validate cognitive task complexity manipulations. Subsequently, participants repeated the same tasks with the same time interval, complemented by the completion of a task motivation questionnaire after each task. Written essays were collected and analysed for CAL measures. Employing a multivariate multilevel approach, the results were triangulated with self-report data. Findings indicate that task repetition significantly impacted CAL in L2 writing, with a positive moderation effect by task complexity. Additionally, task motivation enhanced syntactic complexity in both simple and complex tasks, with negligible effects on accuracy. Notably, task motivation exerted a more substantial influence on students’ repeated task performance concerning lexical complexity. The study’s results offer theoretical and pedagogical insights for TBLT researchers and L2 writing practitioners.

The impact of computer-mediated task complexity on writing fluency: A comparative study of L1 and L2 writers’ fluency performance

Though many studies have been conducted on written language task complexity, much remains to be explored about its relationship with writers’ fluency. In this study, we examined the potential impact of cognitive task complexity on L1 and L2 learners’ writing and spelling fluency, and the writing fluency and spelling differences between two L2 learner groups when performing tasks of varied complexity. Ninety university students– 30 native English speakers, and 30 Hispanic and 30 Chinese English learners–participated in the study. We recorded the process performance of the three learner groups using computer keystroke logging software– Inputlog 7.0– while they completed two argumentative tasks of varied cognitive complexity. The participants’ writing performance was analyzed using multiple fluency measures. The results generally showed that task complexity plays an influential role in differentiating the participants’ writing fluency, and that task complexity interacts with the three learner groups’ writing and spelling fluency performance. This offers invaluable insights that can be harnessed by technology developers to tailor their tools, furnishing learners with the means to adeptly navigate the intricate terrain of task-induced fluency challenges. Such nuanced understanding holds the potential to refine technological solutions, ultimately empowering proficient TBLT-driven L2 writers.

Exploring the influence of cognitive task complexity on EFL language learning and curriculum development

This study explores the role of cognitive task complexity in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) curriculum development and its impact on learner engagement, motivation, and learning outcomes. A mixed-methods approach, combining qualitative and quantitative methods, was employed to gain comprehensive insights into the topic. The qualitative component involved a case study at a selected language institution, including semi-structured interviews with curriculum designers, teachers, and learners, thematic analysis of curricular documents, and non-participant observations of EFL classes. The findings from these methods provided an in-depth understanding of cognitive task complexity integration, its challenges and benefits, and potential areas for improvement. In the quantitative component, an experimental design was utilized to examine the effects of cognitive task complexity on learner engagement, motivation, and learning outcomes. Participants were randomly assigned to either an experimental group, receiving instruction incorporating cognitively challenging tasks, or a control group, receiving instruction without a specific focus on cognitive task complexity. Learner engagement, motivation, and learning outcomes were assessed through pre- and post-intervention measures, including standardized language assessments such as IELTS, and classroom performance indicators such as course grades and teacher ratings. The study concludes that cognitive task complexity plays a crucial role in EFL curriculum development and can promote learner engagement, motivation, and language development when appropriately integrated and supported. Recommendations for educational practice, curriculum development, and future research are provided based on the study's findings.

Dynamic fluctuations in foreign language enjoyment during cognitively simple and complex interactive speaking tasks

Despite evidence on the interaction between cognitive individual differences (IDs) and task complexity, our knowledge of how affective IDs, such as foreign language enjoyment (FLE), interact with task complexity and other factors is limited. Since tasks and activities were found by Dewaele and MacIntyre (2014) to be most relevant to FLE, and since task complexity might interact with learners’ perceptions of task difficulty, it is important to investigate how task complexity impacts FLE changes. Informed by the complex dynamic systems theory, this study employed a mixed-methods multiple case study design to study patterns and causes of high and low FLE arousals. The participants were four pairs of Taiwanese high-intermediate EFL university students who were engaged in simple or complex storytelling tasks with speech acts of refusals. The speakers’ interactions were triangulated with an individual learner’s rating of FLE on a per-second scale and stimulated recalls. Results revealed idiosyncratic patterns of FLE fluctuations of peer interlocutors and a high degree of overlap in sources of low and high FLE in both groups. Speakers reported high FLE as a result of interesting storylines inherent in task design and created by peers, the use of picture prompts, peer collaboration, and task performance. Performance problems, failure to retrieve appropriate vocabulary, task design, and lack of ideas led to low FLE arousals. The findings suggest that task complexity combined with other task-induced, social, and individual factors to affect the fluctuations of FLE. Implications for task design and oral communication instruction to promote FLE are discussed.

Effects of cognitive task complexity and online planning on second language learners' argumentative writing.

Based on Kellogg's writing model, Skehan's Limited Attentional Capacity Model (LACM), and Robinson's Cognition Hypothesis, our study investigated the effects of cognitive task complexity on syntactic complexity, lexical complexity, accuracy, fluency, and functional adequacy in Chinese L2 students' argumentative writing, when students were under an online planning condition. Sixty-eight participants from a Chinese university were recruited to complete two writing tasks with task complexity varied in terms of [+ argument elements]. The findings showed that increasing task complexity led to decreased subordination in terms of clauses per T-unit and dependent clauses per clause, increased phrasal elaboration in terms of coordinate phrases per clause, and no changes in mean length of T-unit, T-units per sentence, mean length of clause, and complex nominals per clause. Neither significant differences in accuracy nor fluency were found as a function of increasing task complexity. Detrimental effects on functional adequacy in content, organization, and overall scores were identified with the increases in task complexity. The trade-offs between syntactic and lexical complexity and between syntactic complexity and functional adequacy support the basic principle of Skehan's LACM that human's information processing capacity is limited and Kellogg's claim that learners have a limited central executive capacity in writing. Implications of the results of this research are discussed.

The Effect of Cognitive Task Complexity on Healthy Gait in the Walking Corsi Test.

Dual-task activities are essential within everyday life, requiring visual-spatial memory (VSM) and mobility skills. Navigational memory is an important component of VSM needed to carry out everyday activities, but this is often not included in traditional tests such as the Corsi block tapping test (CBT). The Walking Corsi Test (WalCT) allows both VSM and navigational memory to be tested together, as well as allowing measures of gait to be collected, thus providing a more complete understanding of dual-task function. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of an increasingly complex cognitive task on gait in a healthy adult population, using the WalCT and body-worn inertial measurement unit (IMU) sensors. Participants completed both the CBT and WalCT, where they were asked to replicate increasingly complex sequences until they were no longer able to carry this out correctly. IMU sensors were worn on the shins throughout the WalCT to assess changes in gait as task complexity increased. Results showed that there were significant differences in several gait parameters between completing a relatively simple cognitive task and completing a complex task. The type of memory used also appeared to have an impact on some gait variables. This indicates that even within a healthy population, gait is affected by cognitive task complexity, which may limit function in everyday dual-task activities.

Creating Meaningful Learning Opportunities through Incorporating Local Research into Chemistry Classroom Activities

Incorporating real-life context through connections to research early in the curriculum can create meaningful learning opportunities that encourage students to engage deeply with classroom content to construct chemistry knowledge. Course-based undergraduate research experiences have been successful at integrating real-life context, but are often only incorporated into upper-level courses. To provide an additional pathway to foster interaction with research, four activities from an introductory chemistry discussion class were created to incorporate authentic research connections. Care was taken to incorporate metacognitive questions designed to help students make connections between their preexisting knowledge and course content. Marzano’s taxonomy was used to analyze the cognitive complexity of tasks, which increased in the revised activities, allowing for more opportunities for knowledge construction. Audio and written work of student groups as they worked through activities was collected. Qualitative analysis of student engagement revealed that control over the content of activities to incorporate opportunities for knowledge construction is not enough to facilitate students consciously engaging in meaningful learning. If instructors wish to promote students integrating chemistry knowledge into their existing framework, course instructors, including graduate teaching assistants, need to be trained on how to properly facilitate classroom experiences to increase the likelihood of success.

Designing speaking tasks for different assessment goals

Abstract This study explored the role of cognitive task complexity in designing speaking assessment tasks. A sample of 120 English learners at different proficiency levels engaged in four narrative tasks with distinct levels/types of cognitive complexity. Performances were assessed using linguistic measures and a task accomplishment rubric. Findings revealed that one of the middle-complexity tasks with moderate intrinsic, moderate germane, and low extraneous complexity elicited the best linguistic performances overall, while the lowest complexity task elicited the highest task accomplishment ratings. Focusing on distinguishing among learner abilities, however, the highest complexity task demonstrated the best discrimination. Cognitive task complexity was also found to moderate the relationship between task accomplishment ratings and linguistic measures. Implications for research into task design, learner performance, and assessment purpose are considered.

The interplay of task complexity (± Here-and-Now) and proficiency in shaping written narratives in Spanish as a foreign language

Research on task complexity focuses on the influence of different task features on language learners' production in terms of linguistic complexity, accuracy, fluency and lexis. Within this field, a line of investigation that has attracted much attention is the influence of resource-directing and resource-dispersing features of cognitive task complexity. Notwithstanding, the evidence assembled to date has yielded contradictory results that are not consistent across task type, proficiency level, and task modality. The study attempts to shed some light by examining the role of task complexity along the [± Here-and-Now] dimension in written production, and whether the effects of task complexity are the same at different proficiency levels. To this aim, data were elicited from Swedish high school learners of Spanish as a FL (n = 67) using two different versions of a narrative task. In turn, the participants' proficiency was assessed using a multiple-choice test. The results suggest that task complexity had a statistically significant effect on the four areas of language production. On the other hand, when splitting the sample into proficiency groups, differences across task conditions were found, but only in the higher proficiency group. These results are interpreted in light of Robinson's Cognition Hypothesis and Skehan's Trade-Off Model.

Cognitive dual-task cost depends on the complexity of the cognitive task, but not on age and disease.

IntroductionDual-tasking (DT) while walking is common in daily life and can affect both gait and cognitive performance depending on age, attention prioritization, task complexity and medical condition. The aim of the present study was to investigate the effects of DT on cognitive DT cost (DTC) (i) in a dataset including participants of different age groups, with different neurological disorders and chronic low-back pain (cLBP) (ii) at different levels of cognitive task complexity, and (iii) in the context of a setting relevant to daily life, such as combined straight walking and turning.Materials and methodsNinety-one participants including healthy younger and older participants and patients with Parkinson's disease, Multiple Sclerosis, Stroke and cLBP performed a simple reaction time (SRT) task and three numerical Stroop tasks under the conditions congruent (StC), neutral (StN) and incongruent (StI). The tasks were performed both standing (single task, ST) and walking (DT), and DTC was calculated. Mixed ANOVAs were used to determine the effect of group and task complexity on cognitive DTC.ResultsA longer response time in DT than in ST was observed during SRT. However, the response time was shorter in DT during StI. DTC decreased with increasing complexity of the cognitive task. There was no significant effect of age and group on cognitive DTC.ConclusionOur results suggest that regardless of age and disease group, simple cognitive tasks show the largest and most stable cognitive effects during DT. This may be relevant to the design of future observational studies, clinical trials and for clinical routine.

Vignette Method in Online Research: Measuring Perceptions of Fairness

The article covers the use of the vignette method in online research. The possibilities of the method based on the measurement of the perception of justice are demonstrated and the tools developed for these purposes are evaluated. The analysis of the quality of the proposed scales is carried out using quantitative assessments of the main psychometric indicators: constructive and criterion validity. The substantiation and calculation of these indicators are described in detail, as well as the interpretation of the obtained values. A moderate indicator of construct validity and a satisfactory indicator of criterion validity indicate the need for further optimisation of the scales.
 Special attention is paid to the peculiarities of using this method online with the help of participants recruited from a commercial panel of test subjects. The paradata are analysed and the dependence of the meaningful results of the study on the non-semantic aspects of the tools is traced. In particular, the influence of the interaction between the order of presentation of stimuli and the type of devices on judgments about fairness is demonstrated. It is shown that participants who completed tasks using mobile devices tend to consider the conditions that they were shown first to be more fair. In contrast to participants who performed tasks on desktop devices, where this effect is practically not observed.
 Recruiting participants from an online panel for a study using the vignette method demonstrated a number of limitations that should be considered when designing a study. Given the demonstrated inattention of participants when completing tasks from mobile devices, it is recommended to limit the completion of questionnaires to the use of desktop devices - computers and laptops. Also, unlike previous studies in this area, when using the vignette method, it is recommended to limit the number of levels of factors in the experimental plan to reduce the cognitive complexity of tasks in the conditions of the inability to control the attentiveness of their performance.
 The results obtained are analysed in the context of methodological research. Methodological solutions are proposed for using the online vignette method, current and possible sources of data distortion are indicated, and recommendations are given for the further use of the developed tools.

Pen-and-Paper versus Computer-Mediated Writing Modality as a New Dimension of Task Complexity

In this paper we make a proposal that writing modality (pen-and-paper versus computer-based writing can be conceptualized as a cognitive task complexity factor. To lay ground for this theoretical proposal, we first review previous adaptations of cognitive task-based models to second language (L2) writing. We then compare pen-and-paper and computer-based writing modalities in terms of their general characteristics, outline the main tenets of multidisciplinary theoretical models which attribute learning and performance-related importance to writing modality, and review the available empirical evidence. From this we draw theoretical and empirical justification for our conceptualization of writing modality as a task complexity dimension. After outlining our conceptual view, we proceed with the review of the methods which could be used to independently assess cognitive load in paper and computer-written L2 tasks. In the conclusion, implications and suggestions for future research are provided.

Measuring cognitive potential based on the performance of tasks of various levels of complexity

Purpose of work. The article is devoted to the topic of measuring the cognitive potential of a person on the basis of the obtained experimental data in order to identify its potential capabilities, as well as to monitor their dynamics, for example, to diagnose recovery after an illness. This goal is divided in the study into two tasks, namely, to assess the cognitive potential, it is necessary to develop two algorithms: 1. Assessment of the level of cognitive complexity of tasks. 2. Systems of levels of cognitive potential for an individual. Methods. The basis of the methods is a set of experimental, including specially developed author’s, techniques, as well as mathematical methods for processing data and calculating the entered specific parameters to formalize the cognitive potential. Results. On the basis of these methods, methods (and specific formulas) are proposed for calculating the cognitive potential of an individual using experimental data and tasks of various levels of complexity. Conclusion. Within the framework of this study, a methodology for determining the value of cognitive potential was created on the basis of the theory of information images / representations, as well as a specially developed web-toolkit for objectifying cognitive skills (including the so-called softskills). This value can be useful, both in studies related to changes in cognitive abilities as a result of the influence of various internal and external factors (for example, learning, diseases, injuries, etc.), diagnostic goals (for example, with the aim of determining the speed recovery after a disease that affects cognitive activity, such as a stroke or SARS-CoV-2), and in the formation of requirements for certain work positions that significantly depend on the cognitive abilities of the individual.

Lexical and Syntactic Complexity of EFL Writing by Cognitive Task Complexity

연구목적 본 연구는 두 유형의 과업 복잡성(task complexity)이 EFL 쓰기에 나타나는 어휘 및 통사적복합성에 미치는 영향에 대한 것으로, 이는 제 2 외국어 학습자의 언어처리 및 언어사용을 위한 인지적요구 수준은 과업 복잡성에 영향을 받을 수 있다는 견해에 근거하고 있다. 연구방법 연구를 위해 초급수준의 70명의 학습자가 과업 복잡성이 다른 두 유형의 영어쓰기 과업에 참여하였다: (1) 스토리 내용 지원 및 유도된 사전 상호협동 계획 과업(a task with content-support and guidedcooperative prior-planning: CSGCP); (2) 스토리 내용 비 지원 및 개인별 사전 계획 과업(a task with no contentsupport and individual prior-planning: NCSIP). 연구결과 연구 결과 CSGCP 그룹이 NCSIP 그룹보다 영어 쓰기 작문에서 어휘와 통사적 복합성에 있어의미 있는 차이로 뛰어남을 보여주었는데, 이는 CSGCP 그룹의 학습자들이 영어 쓰기에서 보다 다양하고고급수준의 어휘를 사용하며, 보다 긴 절(clause) 혹은 구(phrase)를 포함한 복합적인 문장(complex sentence)으로 작문을 하는 것을 의미한다. 결론 이러한 결과는 이전 학자들의 의견과 부합되는 것으로, 즉, 과업의 복잡성이 스토리 내용 지원 및유도된 사전 상호협동 계획으로 인해 보다 쉽게 단순화되어 학습자들의 언어처리 과정에서의 인지적 부담감을 완화하고 과업의 내용에 우선으로 주의를 기울이게 만들며, 결과적으로 어휘 및 통사적으로 더욱 복합성을 지닌 문장을 완성하는데 도움이 된 것으로 보여진다. 이러한 결과의 교수적 활용의미는 다양한 과업복잡성을 함유한 자료를 활용하여 어휘 및 문법적 지식이 부족한 L2 학습자로 하여금 쓰기 과업에 참여함으로써 보다 아카데믹한 어휘 및 통사적 복합성을 지닌 문장의 완성을 유도하는데 도움이 될 것으로 생각된다.

Task sequencing and L2 writing development: Exploring the SSARC model of pedagogic task sequencing

To test the predictive power of the SSARC (stabilize, simplify, automatize, reconstruct, and complexify) model of pedagogic task sequencing in second language (L2) writing development, the present study explores the performance of written decision-making tasks with varied levels of cognitive complexity in a simple-to-complex sequence in comparison to complex-to-simple and individual task performance sequences over time. The participants, 100 advanced-mid learners of English as a second language (ESL), who were divided into three groups completed writing tasks either (1) in a simple-to-complex sequence, (2) in a complex-to-simple sequence, or (3) at one level of complexity (i.e. simple, medium, or complex task versions). Their written production was analysed for syntactic complexity, accuracy, lexical complexity, and fluency (CALF). Quantitative analyses found that the simple-to-complex group produced more syntactically complex and accurate essays over time than the complex-to-simple group, although neither group’s progression was linear. When the two sequencing conditions were compared to the individual task performance condition, the results showed more improvement in CALF in both sequencing groups than in the individual performance group over time, with more and steadier growth in the simple-to-complex condition. These findings support the SSARC model and expand current understandings of the relationship between cognitive task complexity and L2 writing development under different task sequencing conditions, with implications for L2 writing pedagogy.

Electrocortical Activity in Older Adults Is More Influenced by Cognitive Task Complexity Than Concurrent Walking.

Human cognitive-motor performance largely depends on how brain resources are allocated during simultaneous tasks. Nonetheless, little is known regarding the age-related changes in electrocortical activity when dual-task during walking presents higher complexity levels. Thus, the aim of this study was to investigate whether there are distinct changes in walking performance and electrocortical activation between young and older adults performing simple and complex upper limb response time tasks. Physically active young (23 ± 3 years, n = 21) and older adults (69 ± 5 years, n = 19) were asked to respond as fast as possible to a single stimuli or a double stimuli appearing on a touch screen during standing and walking. Response time, step frequency, step frequency variability and electroencephalographic (EEG) N200 and P300 amplitudes and latencies from frontal central and parietal brain regions were recorded. The results demonstrated that older adults were 23% slower to respond to double stimuli, whereas younger adults were only 12% slower (p < 0.01). The longer response time for older adults was accompanied by greater step frequency variability following double-stimuli presentations (p < 0.01). Older adults presented reduced N200 and P300 amplitudes compared to younger participants across all conditions (p < 0.001), with no effects of posture (standing vs walking) on both groups (p > 0.05). More importantly, the P300 amplitude was significantly reduced for older adults when responding to double stimuli regardless of standing or walking tasks (p < 0.05), with no changes in younger participants. Therefore, physically active older adults can attenuate potential walking deficits experienced during dual-task walking in simple cognitive tasks. However, cognitive tasks involving decision making influence electrocortical activation due to reduced cognitive resources to cope with the task demands.

Effect of cognitive task complexity on dual task postural stability: a systematic review and meta-analysis.

The dual task experimental paradigm is used to probe the attentional requirements of postural control. However, findings of dual task postural studies have been inconsistent with many studies even reporting improvement in postural stability during dual tasking and thus raising questions about cognitive involvement in postural control. A U-shaped non-linear relationship has been hypothesized between cognitive task complexity and dual task postural stability suggesting that the inconsistent results might have arisen from the use of cognitive tasks of varying complexities. To systematically review experimental studies that compared the effect of simple and complex cognitive tasks on postural stability during dual tasking, we searched seven electronic databases for relevant studies published between 1980 to September 2020. 33 studies involving a total of 1068 participants met the review's inclusion criteria, 17 of which were included in meta-analysis (healthy young adults: 15 studies, 281 participants; Stroke patients: 2 studies, 52 participants). Narrative synthesis of the findings in studies involving healthy old adults was carried out. Our result suggests that in healthy population, cognitive task complexity may not determine whether postural stability increases or decreases during dual tasking (effect of cognitive task complexity was not statistically significant; P > 0.1), and thus the U-shaped non-linear hypothesis is not supported. Rather, differential effect of dual tasking on postural stability was observed mainly based on the age of the participants and postural task challenge, implying that the involvement of cognitive resources or higher cortical functions in the control of postural stability may largely depends on these two factors.

A numerical assessment of the influence of Industry 4.0 technologies on the cognitive complexity of procedure-guided tasks

A numerical assessment of the influence of Industry 4.0 technologies on the cognitive complexity of procedure-guided tasks

Challenging the connection between task perceptions and language use in L2 writing: Genre, cognitive task complexity, and linguistic complexity

This study explores two writing task variables (genre and idea support) that have been extensively employed in L2 writing research. It specifically examines L2 learners’ perceptions and production of the narrative and argumentative tasks within which the condition of idea support is manipulated. Seventy-six ESL learners participated in this study (each wrote four essays), and they completed a self-rating task questionnaire immediately after each writing performance. Their essays were analyzed using 12 syntactic and lexical complexity measures. Results showed that the learners perceived the two genres as inducing similar cognitive demands, while judging the writing tasks with idea support as less cognitively demanding. In contrast, the learners’ use of syntactic structures differed widely across the two genres, but not across the idea support conditions. These findings suggest that there may be a weak connection between cognitive task complexity and linguistic complexity in written discourse and that syntactic features in learner essays are linguistic means to express genre-specific communicative functions. This study offers implications for L2 writing research and pedagogy.

Oestrogen treatment modulates the impact of cognitive experience and task complexity on memory in middle-aged surgically menopausal rats.

Menopause has been linked to changes in memory. Oestrogen-containing hormone therapy is prescribed to treat menopause-related symptoms and can ameliorate memory changes, although the parameters impacting oestrogen-related memory efficacy are unclear. Cognitive experience and practice have been shown to be neuroprotective and to improve learning and memory during ageing, with the type of task playing a role in subsequent cognitive outcomes. Whether task complexity matters, and whether these outcomes interact with menopause and oestrogen status, remains unknown. To investigate this, we used a rat model of surgical menopause to systematically assess whether maze task complexity, as well as order of task presentation, impacts spatial learning and memory during middle age when rats received vehicle, low-17β-oestradiol (E2 ) or high-E2 treatment. The direction, and even presence, of the effects of prior maze experience differed depending on the E2 dose. Surgical menopause without E2 treatment yielded the least benefit, as prior maze experience did not have a substantial effect on subsequent task performance for vehicle treated rats regardless of task demand level during the first exposure to maze experience or final testing. High-dose E2 yielded a variable benefit, and low-dose E2 produced the greatest benefit. Specifically, low-dose E2 broadly enhanced learning and memory in surgically menopausal rats that had prior experience on another task, regardless of the complexity level of this prior experience. These results demonstrate that E2 dose influences the impact of prior cognitive experience on learning and memory during ageing, and highlights the importance of prior cognitive experience in subsequent learning and memory outcomes.