Cognitive Motivational Processes Research Articles

Mind the gap! Cognitive-motivational determinants of career decision-making in postsecondary school transitions

ABSTRACT Using self-determination and schema therapy theories, we examine the cognitive-motivational processes underlying the regulation of career decisions and the experience of well/ill-being during the key school-to-work transition among Portuguese high school students. We obtained two pathways of transition: A “Bright” pathway, where need satisfaction associates with positive and flexible schematic processing to predict autonomous regulation of career decisions and experienced well-being, and a “Dark” pathway, where need frustration relates to schematic processing of social information to predict unique variance on controlled career decisions, low well-being and ill-being. Schematic processing of social information explained unique variance in ill-being over and above need satisfaction and need frustration. Overall, the findings support the cognitive-motivational determination of career decision making.

Cognitive Defusion as Strategy to Reduce the Intensity of Craving Episodes and Improve Eating Behavior.

The elaborated intrusion theory of desire proposes that craving is a cognitive motivational process involving intrusive thoughts. Changing the way we react to them, cognitive defusion (CD), should limit thought elaboration and craving. We induced chocolate craving in female chocolate cravers before CD (Study 1). A decrease in craving measured by a single-item scale, Visual Analogical Scale (VAS; p < .001, ηp2 = .449) and as a state, State Food Craving Questionnaire (FCQ-S; p = .029, ηp2 = .106) were found in the experimental group, while similar results were also found in group control. The reduction in craving (VAS) in group CD correlated negatively with chocolate consumption on a bogus taste test (r = -.439, p = .036), while the correlation was positive in the case of group control (r = .429, p = .047). Food craving as a trait, measured by the Trait Food Craving Questionnaire (FCQ-T), showed negative correlations with measures of CD and mindfulness skills (lowest r = -.313, p = .018). In Study 2 participants made use of a smartphone application implementing the CD procedure in real contexts whenever they experienced food craving. A corresponding decline in self-reported craving was found, as well as in consumption of the craved food (indulgence) compared with the control condition. Our findings indicate that CD may be a promising intervention for tackling the elaboration of intrusive thoughts and eating behavior in young female food cravers, both in a controlled laboratory environment after a cue-food exposure craving induction procedure, as well as responding to naturally occurring food cravings in real-life settings.

The Learning Process in Live-Action Simulation Games: The Impact of Personality, Motivation, Immersion, and Flow on Learning Outcome in a Simulation Game.

BackgroundAgainst the backdrop of the cognitive-motivational process model proposed by Vollmeyer and Rheinberg (1998) , this study investigates how the personality trait need for cognition in combination with a specific situation (short and long version of a live-action simulation game), current motivation, and immersion and flow (mediators) predict the learning outcome in the simulation game EVERYDAY LIFE IN THE CLASSROOM ( Starker &amp; Imhof, 2014 ).MethodsN = 138 teacher students played the short 2-hour version of the simulation game, and N = 77 played the long 2-day version. Need for cognition, current motivation, immersion, flow, and learning outcome were measured by self-report questionnaires.ResultsA hierarchical regression analysis was used to determine the impact of the predictor variables (need for cognition, current motivation, immersion, and flow) on the self-evaluated learning outcome. For the 2-hour group, the predictor variables interest, challenge, and immersion (subscale: engagement) impacted self-reported learning outcome significantly positive. For the 2-day group, significant predictors were need for cognition, interest, and immersion (subscale: engrossment). In comparison of the two game versions, students playing the 2-day version reported significantly higher levels of engagement, engrossment, and learning outcome.ConclusionThe cognitive-motivational process model of learning was partly supported: interest and immersion predict learning outcome in the live-action simulation game. The extended 2-day version of the game leads to higher levels of immersion and higher learning outcome, indicating that a longer timeframe secures the desired effects on learning outcome from simulation games. Further research needs to shed light on the interaction of personality traits and immersion.

Reliability of the N2-component in a modified 3-stimulus concealed information test: On the importance of excellent measurement accuracy

Research on deception focused on the investigation of event-related potentials (ERP) to facilitate our knowledge on cognitive-motivational processes underlying deception. We investigated the reliability of the frontal N2 amplitude in a modified Concealed Information Test (CIT) (N = 64 participants). Variations of Cronbach’s Alpha coefficients were examined for number of epochs per stimulus type, task modality and types of ERP quantification. Cronbach's Alpha coefficients of the N2 increased with the number of epochs across task modality, stimulus types and electrode positions. In a pictorial CIT, the frontal N2 indicated excellent Cronbach’s Alpha coefficients (≥ 0.90) across electrode positions and quantification methods for 25 epochs per stimulus type. At least 15 epochs were necessary to achieve excellent Cronbach’s Alpha coefficients (≥ 0.90) of the peak-to-peak N2 in a modified CIT across electrode positions and stimulus types. We provide best-practice advises for the necessity to assess N2 in a modified CIT with excellent reliability.

Reducing Heavy Episodic Drinking among College Students Using a Combined Web and Interactive Text Messaging Intervention

ABSTRACT Heavy episodic drinking (HDE) is associated with numerous negative consequences among US college students. A number of universities have turned to web-based interventions to reduce heavy episodic drinking. Despite their efficacy, the magnitude of intervention effects tends to be relatively modest. The current project examined the potential utility of a combined interactive text messaging + web-based intervention for heavy drinking college students. In Study 1 (N = 30), effect sizes were estimated for the combined intervention versus an assessment only control on frequency of HDEs and alcohol-related consequences at one-month follow-up. In Study 2 (N = 79), the effect of the combined intervention compared to a web-intervention alone on past-month HDEs and alcohol-related consequences was assessed using negative binomial regression analyses. Results indicated that the combined intervention had a medium to large effect on HDEs compared to Assessment Only (Study 1) and a significant incremental effect on HDEs compared to the web-based intervention alone (Study 2). Cognitive-motivational process variables were also examined in each study to identify potential mediational mechanisms to be explored in the future work. Findings suggest a combination web-based intervention + interactive text messaging may be an efficacious approach for addressing heavy episodic drinking among risky drinking college students.

Combining Web-Based Attentional Bias Modification and Approach Bias Modification as a Self-Help Smoking Intervention for Adult Smokers Seeking Online Help: Double-Blind Randomized Controlled Trial.

BackgroundAutomatically activated cognitive motivational processes such as the tendency to attend to or approach smoking-related stimuli (ie, attentional and approach bias) have been related to smoking behaviors. Therefore, these cognitive biases are thought to play a role in maintaining smoking behaviors. Cognitive biases can be modified with cognitive bias modification (CBM), which holds promise as an easy-access and low-cost online intervention. However, little is known about the effectiveness of online interventions combining two varieties of CBM. Targeting multiple cognitive biases may improve treatment outcomes because these biases have been shown to be relatively independent.ObjectiveThis study aimed to test the individual and combined effects of two web-based CBM varieties—attentional bias modification (AtBM) and approach bias modification (ApBM)—in a double-blind randomized controlled trial (RCT) with a 2 (AtBM: active versus sham) × 2 (ApBM: active versus sham) factorial design.MethodsA total of 504 adult smokers seeking online help to quit smoking were randomly assigned to 1 of 4 experimental conditions to receive 11 fully automated CBM training sessions. To increase participants’ intrinsic motivation to change their smoking behaviors, all participants first received brief, automated, tailored feedback. The primary outcome was point prevalence abstinence during the study period. Secondary outcomes included daily cigarette use and attentional and approach bias. All outcomes were repeatedly self-assessed online from baseline to the 3-month follow-up. For the examination of training effects on outcome changes, an intention-to-treat analysis with a multilevel modeling (MLM) approach was adopted.ResultsOnly 10.7% (54/504) of the participants completed all 11 training sessions, and 8.3% (42/504) of the participants reached the 3-month follow-up assessment. MLM showed that over time, neither AtBM or ApBM nor a combination of both differed from their respective sham training in point prevalence abstinence rates (P=.17, P=.56, and P=.14, respectively), and in changes in daily cigarette use (P=.26, P=.08, and P=.13, respectively), attentional bias (P=.07, P=.81, and P=.15, respectively), and approach bias (P=.57, P=.22, and P=.40, respectively), while daily cigarette use decreased over time across conditions for all participants (P<.001).ConclusionsThis RCT provides no support for the effectiveness of combining AtBM and ApBM in a self-help web-based smoking cessation intervention. However, this study had a very high dropout rate and a very low frequency of training usage, indicating an overall low acceptability of the intervention, which precludes any definite conclusion on its efficacy. We discuss how this study can inform future designs and settings of online CBM interventions.Trial RegistrationNetherlands Trial Register NTR4678; https://www.trialregister.nl/trial/4678

The Impact of Personality and Motivation on Immersion in Simulation Games

The cognitive-motivational process model of learning describes how personality traits in a specific situation influence current learner motivation and through certain mediators, the learning outcome. This study investigates the influence of personality traits and current motivation on these mediators. For 86 high school students playing a simulation game, the Big Five, the need for cognition, current motivations, immersion, and joy of learning were measured. A hierarchical regression analysis showed that need for cognition, interest, and challenge significantly and positively impacts the experienced immersion. Also, the joy of learning correlates positively with immersion. The adapted model was partly supported: Results of this study can explain to some extent the interaction of personality traits and current motivation as well as their combined impact on immersion in live-action social science simulation games.

Individual differences of conflict monitoring and feedback processing during reinforcement learning in a mock forensic context

This study investigated individual differences of conflict monitoring (N2 component), feedback processing (feedback negativity component), and reinforcement learning in a discrimination learning task using a mock (fictitious) forensic scenario to set participants in a semantic task context. We investigated individual differences of anxiety-related, impulsivity-related traits and reasoning ability during trial-and-error learning of mock suspect and nonsuspect faces. Thereby, we asked how the differential investment of cognitive-motivational processes facilitates learning in a mock forensic context. As learning can be studied by means of time-on-task effects (i.e., variations of cognitive processes across task blocks), we investigated the differential investment of cognitive-motivational processes block-wise in N = 100 participants. By performing structural equation modeling, we demonstrate that conflict monitoring decreased across task blocks, whereas the percentage of correct responses increased across task blocks. Individuals with higher reasoning scores and higher impulsivity-related traits relied rather on feedback processing (i.e., external indicators) during reinforcement learning. Individuals with higher anxiety-related traits intensified their conflict monitoring throughout the task to learn successfully. Observation by relevant others intensified conflict monitoring more than nonobservation. Our data highlight that individual differences and social context modulate the intensity of information processing in a discrimination learning task using a mock forensic task scenario. We discuss our data with regard to recent cognitive-motivational approaches and in terms of reinforcement learning.

Luck, come here! Automatic approach tendencies toward gambling cues in moderate- to high-risk gamblers.

Similar to substance addictions, reward-related cognitive motivational processes, such as selective attention and positive memory biases, have been found in disordered gambling. Despite findings that individuals with substance use problems are biased to approach substance-related cues automatically, no study has yet focused on automatic approach tendencies for motivationally salient gambling cues in problem gamblers. We tested if moderate- to high-risk gamblers show a gambling approach bias and whether this bias was related prospectively to gambling behaviour and problems. Cross-sectional assessment study evaluating the concurrent and longitudinal correlates of gambling approach bias in moderate- to high-risk gamblers compared with non-problem gamblers. Online study throughout the Netherlands. Twenty-six non-treatment-seeking moderate- to high-risk gamblers and 26 non-problem gamblers community-recruited via the internet. Two online assessment sessions 6 months apart, including self-report measures of gambling problems and behaviour (frequency, duration and expenditure) and the gambling approach avoidance task, with stimuli tailored to individual gambling habits. Relative to non-problem gamblers, moderate- to high-risk gamblers revealed a stronger approach bias towards gambling-related stimuli than neutral stimuli (P=0.03). Gambling approach bias was correlated positively with past-month gambling expenditure at baseline (P=0.03) and with monthly frequency of gambling at follow-up (P=0.02). In multiple hierarchical regressions, baseline gambling approach bias predicted monthly frequency positively (P=0.03) and total duration of gambling episodes (P=0.01) 6 months later, but not gambling problems or expenditure. In the Netherlands, relative to non-problem gamblers, moderate- to high-risk gamblers appear to have a stronger tendency to approach rather than to avoid gambling-related pictures compared with neutral ones. This gambling approach bias is associated concurrently with past-month gambling expenditure and duration of gambling and has been found to predict persistence in gambling behaviour over time.

The Cognitive and Motivation Intervention Program in Youth Female Volleyball Players.

This study, grounded in Self-Determination Theory (Deci and Ryan, 1985, 2002) was aimed to determine the influence of a cognitive-motivational intervention program, to improve the basic psychological need satisfaction of autonomy and competence, autonomous motivation, procedural knowledge, perceived performance and sport commitment, in youth volleyball players. Participants included 34 Under-19 female volleyball players. A quasi-experimental design was carried out with an experimental group (n = 16; M = 17.45; SD = .45) and a control group (n = 18; M = 16.64; SD = .70). The experimental group followed a multidimensional intervention program comprised of 24 sessions held over three months (two training sessions per week). It was based on two strategies: giving athletes the possibility of choice in specific training tasks (proposing training situations with several action alternatives) and questioning (cognitively involving players through tactical questions). A repeated-measures MANOVA 2 (group: experimental and control) x 2 (time: pre-test and post-test) was used to analyse the effect of Group x Time interaction. The results of the inter-group analysis showed significant differences in the post-test measurement between the experimental group and the control group (in favour of the experimental group) in the variables: basic psychological need satisfaction of autonomy and competence, autonomous motivation, procedural knowledge, perceived performance and sport commitment. Given the relevance of the cognitive-motivational processes, not only for performance but also for sport commitment, this intervention has important implications for sport coaching.

Modelling antecedents of safety compliance: Incorporating theory from the technological acceptance model

Research into the technology acceptance model (TAM) and safety performance was used to develop a model in which perceived organizational and supervisor support for safety affect employees’ compliance with a risk-awareness safety procedure via cognitive–motivational mechanisms. Cross-sectional survey data were collected from 374 employees of a large Australian mining company. Results of path analysis show that both perceived organizational safety support and perceived supervisor safety support influenced compliance with the risk-awareness procedure, although through different cognitive–motivational processes. Perceived organizational safety support was significantly associated with compliance via perceived usefulness of the risk-awareness procedure. On the other hand, perceived supervisor safety support was significantly related to compliance via safety motivation. The implications for theory and practice are discussed.

Gender Differences in Implicit Processing of Sexual Stimuli

The present studies investigated whether men and women differ in cognitive–motivational processing of sexual stimuli in order to better understand the commonly observed gender differences in sexual outcome variables. Because these processes often operate without conscious control, we focused specifically on automatic stimulus processing. Using a series of implicit tasks, we measured inhibition, attentional orientation, appraisal and approach–avoidance motivation regarding sexually explicit stimuli in male and female students. Results showed that men were more strongly motivated to approach sexual stimuli than women and were better able to inhibit sexual information as to prevent activation of the sexual response. With regard to attentional orientation, men were more easily drawn by sexual cues than women, yet only when the cues were presented long enough to allow more elaborative processing. No gender differences were found in the implicit evaluation of sexual information, although men and women did differ at the level of self–reported sexual evaluations. Our results indicate the importance of incorporating information–processing mechanisms and emotion regulation strategies into the conceptualization of the sexual response and promote further research on the specificity, robustness, predictive validity and malleability of the cognitive–motivational processes underlying sexual arousal. Copyright © 2015 European Association of Personality Psychology

No Occasion for Pleasure: The Self-Worth Contingency of a Setback and Coping With Humor

Whether or not one uses humor to cope with a setback may depend on the idiosyncratic relation of the setback to feeling of self-worth. All people pursue the higher order goal of self-validation, but people differ in what domains of life their self-worth is contingent upon and to what extent. In this article based on an incongruity theory of humor we argue that the use of humor in coping with a highly self-worth-contingent setback may be impeded by two cognitive-motivational processes: goal-driven activation and goal shielding. From the outlined theory we derived the hypothesis that the more a domain is contingent upon self-worth, the less likely a person will be to use humor to deal with a setback in that domain. We tested this hypothesis in two studies employing two forms of self-report, i.e., ratings of reaction likelihood to setbacks described at an abstract domain level (Study 1), and ranking of reaction likelihood to concrete setbacks from different domains (Study 2). The hypothesis was affirmed in different domains of self-worth contingency controlling for the influence of habitual coping with humor, coping by disengagement, and global self-esteem.

Preparing to approach or avoid alcohol: EEG correlates, and acute alcohol effects

Recently an approach-bias for alcohol has been described as an important cognitive motivational process in the etiology of alcohol use problems. In the approach-bias, perception and action are inextricably linked and stimulus response associations are central to this bias: performance improves when task instructions are congruent with a pre-existing stimulus-response association. These pre-existing response associations could potentially allow advance response preparation and execution. The present study aimed at investigating the effect of the alcohol approach bias on response preparation by means of event-related desynchronization in the beta band (beta-ERD) of the EEG signal and the effect of acute alcohol in the approach bias in response to alcohol cues. Subjects (18 social drinkers) performed an adapted alcohol-Approach Avoidance Task, in which a preparatory period was provided between alcohol/soft drink cues and approach/avoid responses. Subjects were tested both in a placebo and in an alcohol condition (counterbalanced). Posterior beta-ERD was found to increase during preparation for alcohol-approach trials. The beta-ERD in the congruent block increased following alcohol administration. These results suggest that advance response preparation may play a role in the alcohol approach bias and that acute alcohol facilitates response preparatory processes for approach alcohol trials. Future EEG studies using the adapted AAT may help understanding approach biases in addiction.

Theoretical constructs that explain and enhance learning: a longitudinal examination

One important line of inquiry in educational psychology involves the study of change of individuals' cognitive-motivational processes. The conjunctive use of longitudinal data with latent growth curve modeling procedures has, for example, allowed researchers to identify initial levels and to trace trajectories of theoretical variables such as self-efficacy over time. The study reported in this article proposed a conceptual model that depicted relations between a deep-learning approach, mastery goals and self-efficacy over time. A final sample of 195 second-year university students (100 females, 95 males) took part in this three-wave panel study. We used various inventories to test the initial states and rates of change of the three aforementioned constructs. As an a posteriori analysis, we included prior academic achievement as a possible predictor of change. The results ascertained from our analyses indicate an increase in growth of a deep-learning approach, mastery goals and self-efficacy across the two-year period. Importantly, a posteriori results accentuated the role of prior academic achievement as a predictor of the initial level of personal self-efficacy.

The Role of Motivation, Cognition, and Conscientiousness for Academic Achievement

Based on a cognitive motivational process model of learning, the impact of studying behavior on learning outcome is investigated. First-year students ( N = 488) participated in the study. Two research questions were addressed: (1) Can cognitive-motivational variables and objective study behavior predict individual learning? (2) Which factors drive studying behavior? Results show low to moderate correlations between cognitive-motivational variables and performance. A cluster analysis yielded three profiles: (1) interested learners with high academic self-concept and effort investment; (2) low interest learners with high academic self-concept and low effort investment; and (3) interested learners with low self-concept and low effort. Groups 2 and 3 are considered at-risk students for developing a surface approach to learning and for drop out.

The design of a strategy to encourage voluntary travel behaviour change: a cap and save programme

The objective of this work is to explore the contribution of daily activity-travel patterns to carbon emissions, and to define the steps for the implementation of an effective behavioural strategy to encourage voluntary travel behavioural changes. This work proposes an extensive review of the most relevant strategies implemented to achieve sustainable objectives. In particular, the focus is on those strategies aimed at changing human behaviour, debated both in transportation (Structural strategies) and in sociological and psychological (Cognitive-Motivational strategies) fields. Further, international experiences of Voluntary Travel Behavioural Changes programs, as opposed to compulsory measures (i.e. taxation, restrictions etc.), are investigated. Finally, the work describes the results of a pilot survey held in Cagliari (Italy) to test a behavioural strategy called "Cap and Save". The basic idea of the Cap and Save is that voluntary travel behavioural changes are more likely when the individuals are able to recognize a personal profit. The Cap and Save program combines a number of key aspects from behavioural strategies reviewed in the literature (i.e. Tradable Exploitation Rights, Personal Journey Planning etc.): first, individuals are free to modify their behaviour; second, a cognitive-motivational process is set forth to increase awareness of sustainable behaviours. Third, each individual receives an annual emissions limit (cap) and a monetary incentive (save) to reduce emissions; fourth, a set of personalized alternatives is tailored for the individual in order to reduce weekly mileage. Finally, the Cap and Save program relies on an accurate analysis of activity-travel behaviour before and after policy intervention. The initial test of the Cap and Save programme was conducted during a two-week survey (July-October 2009), which involved a group of students from the University of Cagliari (Italy). The first week, the students were invited to record their actual daily activity-travel patterns. The second week, they were asked to repeat the survey, this time they were challenged to maintain a weekly cap of kilometres travelled thereby saving the corresponding resources (i.e. environmental and monetary). Each student was provided with a set of personalized alternatives, which (if followed) would result in a 20% reduction of kilometres travelled. The comparison of before and after strategy implementation highlights the implications of Cap and Save on a wide range of individual daily activities and, specifically, on personal car usage.

Depressive symptoms and the implicit evaluation of alcohol: The moderating role of coping motives

BackgroundDepressive symptoms in college students have been associated with a number of indices of hazardous drinking. Investigators have utilized a variety of experimental paradigms to better understand the cognitive-motivational mechanisms that may underlie this association. Implicit cognition studies have provided increasing support for the view that coping motives may moderate the association between negative affect and the incentive value of alcohol. However, less is known about how symptoms of depression may be linked with implicit evaluative responses to alcohol. The current research sought to investigate the association between depressive symptoms and implicit evaluations of alcohol stimuli as measured by an evaluative priming task. MethodsEighty-two current drinkers completed assessments of depressive symptoms, alcohol use, and drinking motives before engaging in a computerized alcohol evaluative priming task. ResultsAnalyses showed that the association between depressive symptoms and the positive implicit evaluation of alcohol was moderated by drinking motives, such that the positive association between depression and alcohol evaluation was stronger for students who had higher coping motives. ConclusionsThese findings add to our understanding of how depressive symptoms may influence responses to alcohol and provide further support for the view that individual differences in coping motives may be a critical moderator of the association between depressive symptoms and alcohol-related cognitive motivational processes.

Different Perspectives on the Sex-Attachment Link: Towards an Emotion-Motivational Account

Although the link between sex and attachment was made decades ago (Hazan & Shaver, 1987), theories on sexual and attachment functioning have been developed in relative isolation. Recent efforts to integrate both literatures have been complicated by the fact that the sex–attachment link has been approached from very different perspectives, including biological, evolutionary, developmental, cognitive, and social psychology approaches. Also, at the empirical level, research on sex and attachment lacks overarching synthesis. This article gives an overview of the most important theoretical ideas and empirical insights on sex and attachment. It starts with describing general models that approach the sex–attachment link from an evolutionary and neurobiological perspective. Then, it summarizes theoretical and empirical ideas of attachment theory and describes how attachment style differences are manifested in intimate and sexual relationships. Research so far has been limited to studying the predicted link between sex and attachment in terms of broad descriptives, and it would benefit the literature to specify the processes and pathways that mediate the sex–attachment link. After a short discussion of the functional similarities between the sexual and the attachment systems, the article describes some specific—dynamical—models that focus on the emotional and cognitive-motivational processes through which attachment schemas influence sexual experiences. Such an emotion–motivational perspective on sex and attachment can help to organize theoretical ideas and empirical findings and eventually promote an integrative view on how attachment dynamics can interact with sexual experiences.

Cannabis use and cognitive dysfunction

Byline: Amresh. Shrivastava, Megan. Johnston, Ming. Tsuang This review considers the effects of cannabis on cognitive functioning, in both short and long term. Although the general impression supported by many studies is that cannabis causes cognitive decline, particularly with long-term usage, some research suggests that this may not be the case. Nevertheless, certain specific neuropsychological parameters have been found to be affected. Most commonly and consistently reported are response time, prolongation of word viewing time, basic oculomotor deficit, residual verbal memory and executive functioning. The pathways to cognitive dysfunction are given particular focus, including the role of the central nervous system (CNS) cannabinoid system. Finally, the psychiatric effects of cannabis are considered in light of the idea that cognitive function may be the common denominator in the association between cannabis and psychotic disorders. Effect of Cannabis on Cognition Cannabis is one of the most commonly abused illicit drugs. The World Health Organization [sup][1] reports that almost 3% of the world's adult population abuses cannabis, with many more individuals reporting less frequent use. Adolescents in particular consume high levels of cannabis, starting generally between 12 and 16 years of age. This is an important factor from a psychiatric and developmental point of view. [sup][2] Cannabis use is of important consideration in light of its recognized acute and long-term health effects. [sup][1],[3] Active compounds of cannabis, called cannabidols, have 64 active isomers, each having different effects on human health and behavior. Only one metabolite, tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), is reported to be an active metabolite responsive for its effects. [sup][4] Studies show that it induces both psychical and physical dependencies, [sup][5] but the perception of withdrawal is weak on account of its slow elimination. [sup][6] There is a widely held belief that cannabis is inert to the brain, [sup][7] and although the psychological consequences are quite evident, the population at large seems unconvinced. There is much debate about the nature of cannabis dependence, as it is considered non-addicting due to the absence of a withdrawal state. This presumption has also been proved wrong. [sup][6] The general impression supported by many studies is that cannabis causes cognitive decline, particularly with long-term usage. Majority of studies have suggested a significant cognitive decline in cannabis abusers compared to non-abusers and healthy controls. [sup][8],[9],[10] A report by Bartholomew et al. [sup][11] suggested that cannabis use has a detrimental effect on prospective memory ability in young adults but users may not be aware of these deficits. Cannabis is known to produce substantial acute effects on human cognition and visuomotor skills. Many recent studies additionally revealed rather long-lasting effects on basic oculomotor control, especially after chronic use. [sup][12] Even so, it is still unknown to what extent these deficits play a role in everyday tasks that strongly rely on an efficient saccade system, such as reading. Cannabis has a negative impact on cognition; however, the current body of research literature does not provide evidence of significant, long-term effects due to cannabis use. Several acute effects are noted and some are suggestive of negative mental health consequences. [sup][13] Evidence from both animal and human studies suggests that the severity of the effects of cannabis use on cognitive development is dependent on the age when cannabis use begins. [sup][14] One possible explanation is that those who begin cannabis use early in adolescence are more likely to become heavily dependent. It is plausible that chronic cannabis abuse will then interfere with educational and vocational training. From a more biological perspective, however, use of cannabis during critical developmental periods in the still maturing brain may induce persistent alterations in brain structure and brain function. …