Cognitive Load Conditions Research Articles

Sleep Fragmentation Modulates the Neurophysiological Correlates of Cognitive Fatigue.

Cognitive fatigue (CF) is a critical factor affecting performance and well-being. It can be altered in suboptimal sleep quality conditions, e.g., in patients suffering from obstructive sleep apnea who experience both intermittent hypoxia and sleep fragmentation (SF). Understanding the neurophysiological basis of SF in healthy individuals can provide insights to improve cognitive functioning in disrupted sleep conditions. In this electroencephalographical (EEG) study, we investigated in 16 healthy young participants the impact of experimentally induced SF on the neurophysiological correlates of CF measured before, during, and after practice on the TloadDback, a working memory task tailored to each individual's maximal cognitive resources. The participants spent three consecutive nights in the laboratory two times, once in an undisrupted sleep (UdS) condition and once in an SF condition induced by non-awakening auditory stimulations, counterbalanced and performed the TloadDback task both in a high (HCL) and a low (LCL) cognitive load condition. EEG activity was recorded during wakefulness in the 5 min resting state immediately before and after, as well as during the 16 min of the TloadDback task practice. In the high cognitive load under a sleep-fragmentation (HCL/SF) condition, high beta power increased during the TloadDback, indicating heightened cognitive effort, and the beta and alpha power increased in the post- vs. pre-task resting state, suggesting a relaxation rebound. In the low cognitive load/undisturbed sleep (LCL/UdS) condition, low beta activity increased, suggesting a relaxed focus, as well as mid beta activity associated with active thinking. These findings highlight the dynamic impact of SF on the neurophysiological correlates of CF and underscore the importance of sleep quality and continuity to maintain optimal cognitive functioning.

Evaluation of Cognitive Load Differences between Elderly and Young Pedestrians at the Signalised Intersection

The pedestrian cognitive load has an important effect on the pedestrian crossing decision making. Compared with young adults, old people are characterised by declining physical function and slower reaction ability, which makes them prone to traffic accidents when crossing the street. This study aims to compare the visual information-mental load correlation between elderly and young adults waiting at the signalised intersections and evaluate their cognitive load conditions. Therefore, two signalised intersections with different traffic scenes in the Nan’an District, Chongqing, China were selected. The eye-tracking, electrocardiographic and electrodermal activity data of young and old pedestrians were collected using eye-tracking and physiological instruments. The visual indexes (the total duration of fixations, the number of fixations, the average pupil diameter changing rate, the number of saccades, the average peak speed of saccades, the average amplitude of saccades and the total amplitude of saccades) and physiological indicators (the average growth rate of heart rate, the time-domain analysis indicator of HRV and HRV frequency domain analysis indicators, electrodermal response amplitude and rise time of the EDR amp.) were taken as inputs and outputs parameters, respectively. Then, the comprehensive cognitive load evaluation model for pedestrians was constructed when waiting to cross the street based on the data envelopment analysis method. And the cognitive load characteristic differences between the young adults and the elderly were compared. The results show that in the same crossing scene, compared with the young pedestrian, the elder pedestrian exhibited lower overall perceptual efficiency, lower fixation durations and higher cognitive loads. These results can provide certain references on improving the street crossing safety for the elderly pedestrian.

Cognitive Load and Dual-Task Performance in Individuals with and without Forward Head Posture.

Background: Recent studies have found forward head posture (FHP) is associated with altered physiology. There is a lack of research into whether FHP is associated with altered gait parameters when cognitively challenged. Our hypothesis is that individuals with FHP and those without will demonstrate different responses when undergoing dual-task assessment. Methods: Forty-five asymptomatic participants with FHP, defined as a craniovertebral angle (CVA) < 50°, were matched to forty-five participants with normal head posture (NHP) with a CVA > 55°. Participants walked along a 10 m platform under a control condition (no cognitive load) while an optical motion-capture system assessed gait kinematics. Secondly, participants were assessed under a dual-task cognitive load condition to identify the impact on gait kinematics. Results: Under the single-task condition, there were no significant differences for any gait parameter. In the dual-task condition, 12/13 gait parameters were significantly altered for the FHP vs. NHP group (p < 0.01). A calculation of the dual-task cost (DTC) percentage showed significant increases in all gait parameters in participants with FHP (p < 0.02). Correlations between the CVA and gait parameters were not significant for the single-task condition, but all gait parameters were correlated to CVA for the dual-task condition (p < 0.01). The correlation between CVA and DTC for all gait variables was significant (p < 0.04). Conclusions: This study demonstrates that FHP significantly increases the cognitive cost during walking, highlighting the importance of proper postural alignment for maintaining cognitive function under a dual-task condition.

Brain correlates of attentional load processing reflect degree of bilingual engagement: Evidence from EEG

The present study uses electroencephalography (EEG) with an N-back task (0-, 1-, and 2-back) to investigate if and how individual bilingual experiences modulate brain activity and cognitive processes. The N-back is an especially appropriate task given recent proposals situating bilingual effects on neurocognition within the broader attentional control system (Bialystok and Craik, 2022). Beyond its working memory component, the N-Back task builds in complexity incrementally, progressively taxing the attentional system. EEG, behavioral and language/social background data were collected from 60 bilinguals. Two cognitive loads were calculated: low (1-back minus 0-back) and high (2-back minus 0-back). Behavioral performance and brain recruitment were modeled as a function of individual differences in bilingual engagement. We predicted task performance as modulated by bilingual engagement would reflect cognitive demands of increased complexity: slower reaction times and lower accuracy, and increase in theta, decrease in alpha and modulated N2/P3 amplitudes. The data show no modulation of the expected behavioral effects by degree of bilingual engagement. However, individual differences analyses reveal significant correlations between non-societal language use in Social contexts and alpha in the low cognitive load condition and age of acquisition of the L2/2L1 with theta in the high cognitive load. These findings lend some initial support to Bialystok and Craik (2022), showing how certain adaptations at the brain level take place in order to deal with the cognitive demands associated with variations in bilingual language experience and increases in attentional load. Furthermore, the present data highlight how these effects can play out differentially depending on cognitive testing/modalities – that is, effects were found at the TFR level but not behaviorally or in the ERPs, showing how the choice of analysis can be deterministic when investigating bilingual effects.

Exploring the effect of cognitive load in scenarios of daily driving

Although driving to and from work is an unavoidable part of the working life of many people, little is known about the relationship between work-related and drive-related cognitive load in daily commuting. To explore those relationships, Study 1 examined the effect of a demanding driving period on the performance of a subsequent cognitive task (mimicking a home-to-work commuting scenario). That driving-related higher cognitive load than the control condition was associated with an increased accuracy in the following cognitive task. Study 2 examined the effects of a period of demanding cognitive tasks on the performance of a subsequent driving task (mimicking a work-to-home commuting scenario). Although no reliable effect on speed or lane keeping ability in a virtual motorway scenario was observed, the completion of tasks under the higher cognitive load condition before driving led to a modest increase in the distance kept from the car ahead. The two sets of findings suggest that moderate levels of cognitive load could modulate the performance in timely contiguous tasks. The process underpinning possible spillover effects with such timestamp is unknow but might be linked to the activation of long-lasting attentional processes involving alertness. Hence, this exploratory study can be a catalyst for future studies investigating the interplay between cognitive load and driving in scenarios of daily commuting.

Skillful and strategic navigation in soccer - a motor-cognitive dual-task approach for the evaluation of a dribbling task under different cognitive load conditions.

Soccer is a competitive sport that relies on distinct motor skills and cognitive processes. However, cognitive aspects are often overlooked, with a focus mainly on motor skills. Limited research has explored screening tests within motor-cognitive navigation dual-task (DT) paradigms. This study aims to validate a sensitive approach for assessing soccer-specific dribbling by evaluating the Trail-Dribbling Test (TDT) as a method to differentiate high-performance (HP) from low-performance (LP) players. Two hundred and seventy-five participants (41 females) aged between 12 and 34 completed the Trail-Making Test (TMT), the Trail-Walking Test (TWT), and the soccer-specific TDT under three levels of cognitive load. Results indicated shorter TDT durations for HP compared to LP players, with increased cognitive load accentuating differences (TDT-M: p = 0.044, d = 0.260; TDT-A: p < 0.001, d = 0.449; TDT-B: p < 0.001, d = 0.653). The TDT effectively discriminated between HP and LP players in the 14-15 (AUC = 0.712-0.820) and 16-17 age groups (AUC = 0.634-0.839). In conclusion, the ecologically valid TDT demonstrates the potential for quantifying soccer-specific dribbling, offering insights into motor and cognitive aspects of dribbling performance, especially among soccer players aged 14-17.

The Effect of Icon Color Combinations in Information Interfaces on Task Performance under Varying Levels of Cognitive Load

In human–computer interaction interfaces, icons serve as highly symbolic elements that convey information and significantly influence the performance of visual search and other tasks. Thus, the selection of appropriate colors plays a crucial role in the design of human–computer interfaces. This study aimed to investigate the effects of icon color combinations on human visual search task performance across various cognitive load conditions. The experiment was divided into two parts, involving a cognitive load test experiment and an icon search task, wherein the former required participants to select the target icon from 16 de-colored icons, and the latter involved selecting the target icon from 16 color combinations of 8 colors (background colors: black, red, blue, and purple; foreground colors: white, yellow, green, and turquoise). A total of 20 participants (11 females and 9 males, all aged between 18 and 24 years) were recruited for this experiment to perform both tasks sequentially. Through a comprehensive consideration of factors such as the NASA-TLX scale, retrieval time, etc., the experimental results revealed that cognitive load increased with time pressure, resulting in varying optimal color combinations for different cognitive load levels. Additionally, background colors did not affect task response time under different cognitive loads, whereas white foreground color was superior to turquoise foreground color in a medium cognitive load environment. Meanwhile, our results recommend prioritizing white-on-black as the preferred color combination, given that it demonstrated excellent cognitive performance in all three cognitive load environments. Conversely, white-on-blue is not recommended as a color combination for the design of high cognitive load environments. Concerning medium cognitive load environments, yellow-on-red or white-on-purple color combinations were preferred. Finally, in low cognitive load environments, white-on-purple is recommended as the primary color combination. Overall, this study provides a theoretical reference for the future design of interactive interface icons across various contexts.

Examining the Influence of Cognitive Load and Environmental Conditions on Autonomic Nervous System Response in Military Aircrew: A Hypoxia-Normoxia Study.

Executing flight operations demand that military personnel continuously perform tasks that utilize low- and high-order cognitive functions. The autonomic nervous system (ANS) is crucial for regulating the supply of oxygen (O2) to the brain, but it is unclear how sustained cognitive loads of different complexities may affect this regulation. Therefore, in the current study, ANS responses to low and high cognitive loads in hypoxic and normoxic conditions were evaluated. The present analysis used data from a previously conducted, two-factor experimental design. Healthy subjects (n = 24) aged 19 to 45 years and located near Fort Novosel, AL, participated in the parent study. Over two, 2-h trials, subjects were exposed to hypoxic (14.0% O2) and normoxic (21.0% O2) air while simultaneously performing one, 15-min and one, 10-min simulation incorporating low- and high-cognitive aviation-related tasks, respectively. The tests were alternated across five, 27-min epochs; however, only epochs 2 through 4 were used in the analyses. Heart rate (HR), HR variability (HRV), and arterial O2 saturation were continuously measured using the Warfighter MonitorTM (Tiger Tech Solutions, Inc., Miami, FL, USA), a previously validated armband device equipped with electrocardiographic and pulse oximetry capabilities. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) regression models were performed to compare ANS responses between the low- and high-cognitive-load assessments under hypoxic and normoxic conditions. Pairwise comparisons corrected for familywise error were performed using Tukey's test within and between high and low cognitive loads under each environmental condition. Across epochs 2 through 4, in both the hypoxic condition and the normoxic condition, the high-cognitive-load assessment (MATB-II) elicited heightened ANS activity, reflected by increased HR (+2.4 ± 6.9 bpm) and decreased HRV (-rMSSD: -0.4 ± 2.7 ms and SDNN: -13.6 ± 14.6 ms). Conversely, low cognitive load (ADVT) induced an improvement in ANS activity, with reduced HR (-2.6 ± 6.3 bpm) and increased HRV (rMSSD: +1.8 ± 6.0 ms and SDNN: vs. +0.7 ± 6.3 ms). Similar observations were found for the normoxic condition, albeit to a lower degree. These within-group ANS responses were significantly different between high and low cognitive loads (HR: +5.0 bpm, 95% CI: 2.1, 7.9, p < 0.0001; rMSSD: -2.2 ms, 95% CI: -4.2, -0.2, p = 0.03; SDNN: -14.3 ms, 95% CI: -18.4, -10.1, p < 0.0001) under the hypoxic condition. For normoxia, significant differences in ANS response were only observed for HR (+4.3 bpm, 95% CI: 1.2, 7.4, p = 0.002). Lastly, only high cognitive loads elicited significant differences between hypoxic and normoxic conditions but just for SDNN (-13.3 ms, 95% CI, -17.5, -8.9, p < 0.0001). Our study observations suggest that compared to low cognitive loads, performing high-cognitive-load tasks significantly alters ANS activity, especially under hypoxic conditions. Accounting for this response is critical, as military personnel during flight operations sustain exposure to high cognitive loads of unpredictable duration and frequency. Additionally, this is likely compounded by the increased ANS activity consequent to pre-flight activities and anticipation of combat-related outcomes.

Ironic processes of concentration and suppression under pressure: A study on rifle shooting in Norwegian elite biathletes.

This study examined how priming attentional and negative cues affected participants' shooting performances toward ironic error targets under cognitive load conditions in Stroop task across two experiments. Semi-elite biathletes (Experiment 1, n = 10; Experiment 2, n = 9) participated in the study. The study used a within-subject quasi-experimental design, particularly a one-way repeated measures multivariate analysis of variance and a 2 × 2 fully repeated measures analysis of variance, to determine the participants' hit rates and shooting response times (RTs). In both experiments, the participants completed the reverse-Stroop-based target shooting performance under low- and high-cognitive load conditions while receiving frequent priming attentional and negative cues. The findings from Experiment 1 suggest that regulating repetitive priming attentional thoughts is efficacious in mitigating the likelihood of ironic performance errors and interference effects. The results of Experiment 2 show that repetitive priming negative cues resulted in negligible ironic error hit rates and slower RTs in target hits under high-cognitive load conditions. The Bayesian analyses provided evidence supporting the null hypotheses. Trying to control repetitive priming attentional and negative thoughts reduces ironic performance errors to a similar degree under cognitive load conditions among biathletes, regardless of interference effects. Further research is needed to determine the effectiveness of suppressing task-relevant negative instructions in reducing the likelihood of ironic performance errors under pressure.

Does cognitive load influence expressive flexibility? Comparing civilian and veteran populations

ABSTRACT Expressive flexibility (EF) is a component of emotion regulation flexibility repertoire that constitutes the ability to enhance or suppress the expression of emotion in accordance with a given situational context. Previous research has associated EF with healthy adjustment to adversity. This association has also been observed in combat veterans with elevated post-traumatic stress. EF and other elements of regulatory flexibility are believed to rely on functions of cognitive control, such as working memory. However, previous research has yet to investigate this link. Accordingly, we examined performance in veterans (N = 42) and non-veterans (N = 75) on an EF Task with and without the inclusion of a numerical cognitive load task. Results indicate an interaction between cognitive load and expressive condition. Specifically, suppression abilities were weaker in cognitive load conditions. These findings did not vary in veteran and non-veteran samples. These results add to a growing body of work indicating a relationship between cognitive control and regulatory flexibility, and suggest similar mechanisms between veteran and non-veteran populations.

Blink-Related Oscillations Provide Naturalistic Assessments of Brain Function and Cognitive Workload within Complex Real-World Multitasking Environments.

There is a significant need to monitor human cognitive performance in complex environments, with one example being pilot performance. However, existing assessments largely focus on subjective experiences (e.g., questionnaires) and the evaluation of behavior (e.g., aircraft handling) as surrogates for cognition or utilize brainwave measures which require artificial setups (e.g., simultaneous auditory stimuli) that intrude on the primary tasks. Blink-related oscillations (BROs) are a recently discovered neural phenomenon associated with spontaneous blinking that can be captured without artificial setups and are also modulated by cognitive loading and the external sensory environment-making them ideal for brain function assessment within complex operational settings. Electroencephalography (EEG) data were recorded from eight adult participants (five F, M = 21.1 years) while they completed the Multi-Attribute Task Battery under three different cognitive loading conditions. BRO responses in time and frequency domains were derived from the EEG data, and comparisons of BRO responses across cognitive loading conditions were undertaken. Simultaneously, assessments of blink behavior were also undertaken. Blink behavior assessments revealed decreasing blink rate with increasing cognitive load (p < 0.001). Prototypical BRO responses were successfully captured in all participants (p < 0.001). BRO responses reflected differences in task-induced cognitive loading in both time and frequency domains (p < 0.05). Additionally, reduced pre-blink theta band desynchronization with increasing cognitive load was also observed (p < 0.05). This study confirms the ability of BRO responses to capture cognitive loading effects as well as preparatory pre-blink cognitive processes in anticipation of the upcoming blink during a complex multitasking situation. These successful results suggest that blink-related neural processing could be a potential avenue for cognitive state evaluation in operational settings-both specialized environments such as cockpits, space exploration, military units, etc. and everyday situations such as driving, athletics, human-machine interactions, etc.-where human cognition needs to be seamlessly monitored and optimized.

Using narrative 360° video as a tool to promote breast self-examination

This experiment examined the feasibility of 360° video as a tool for public health messaging by investigating the effect that viewing the 360° documentary The Waiting Room VR had on female viewers’ sense of identification, attitudes to breast cancer screening and mortality salience. A key part of the documentary places participants in a viewpoint ambiguously aligned to that of the film’s director and subject, Victoria Mapplebeck (VM), in a scene that recreates her radiotherapy treatment for breast cancer. Eighty female participants watched the documentary either sitting upright with the chair back set at a 90° angle or reclining with the chair back set at a 140° angle (consistent with VMs posture) under conditions of either high or low cognitive load. The effect of posture type was measured explicitly using questionnaires on presence, identification and breast self-examination (BSE) intention as well as implicitly using a lexical decision task to measure death-thought awareness (DTA). Reclined posture led to a higher sense of spatial presence but no increase in identification with VM. Significantly increased identification with VM led to greater intention to conduct BSE. There were no effects of posture, cognitive load or identification on DTA. The implications of these results for using 360° video as a behaviour change tool, the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on the terror management manipulation and the relevance of spatial viewpoint in 360° video are discussed.

The Impact of Patient Race, Patient Socioeconomic Status, and Cognitive Load of Physician Residents and Fellows on Chronic Pain Care Decisions

Social stereotypes are more likely to influence decision-making under conditions of high cognitive load (ie, mental workload), such as in medical settings. We examined how patient race, patient socioeconomic status (SES), physician cognitive load, and physician implicit beliefs about race and SES differences in pain tolerance impacted physicians’ pain treatment decisions. Physician residents and fellows (N = 120) made treatment decisions for 12 computer-simulated patients with back pain that varied by race (Black/White) and SES (low/high). Half of the physicians were randomized to be interrupted during the decision task to make hypertension medication conversion calculations (high cognitive load group), while the other half completed the task without interruptions (low cognitive load group). Both groups were given equal time to make pain care decisions (2.5 minutes/patient). Results of multilevel ordinal logistic regression analyses indicated that physicians prescribed weaker analgesics to patients with high vs. low SES (odds ratio = .68, 95% confidence interval [.48, .97], P = .03). There was also a patient SES-by-cognitive load interaction (odds ratio = .56, 95% confidence interval [.31, 1.01], P = .05) that is theoretically and potentially practically meaningful but was not statistically significant at P < .05. These findings shed light on physician cognitive load as a clinically-relevant factor in the context of pain care quality and equity. PerspectiveThese findings highlight the clinical relevance of physician cognitive load (eg, mental workload) when providing pain care for diverse patients. This line of work can support the development of interventions to manage physician cognitive load and its impact on pain care, which may ultimately help reduce pain disparities.

Storage interference in working memory cannot be removed by attention

In the present study, we examined the hypothesis that the storage interference in working memory can be removed by attention. A dual-task paradigm was employed in Experiment 1 and 2, in which participants performed a color memory task and an RSVP letter detection task concurrently. The cognitive load of the RSVP letter detection task and the storage interference caused by the RSVP letter detection task was manipulated independently. That is, the produced storage-interference difference between the low and high interference conditions was comparable between the low and high cognitive load conditions, whereas the available attentional resources were different under the two cognitive load conditions. Since there were more attentional resources in the low load condition, the removal hypothesis predicts that differences in recall performance between the low and high interference conditions should be larger in high load than in low load, i.e., there would be an interaction between load and interference. However, the results of the two experiments did not show such an interaction. In Experiment 3, we manipulated the time available for the removal mechanism to work while inducing both the storage interference and processing interference. The results showed no sign of interference removal. Thus, the present results provided solid evidence to challenge the removal hypothesis.

Feedback quality and divided attention: exploring commentaries on alignment in task-oriented dialogue

Abstract While studies have shown the importance of listener feedback in dialogue, we still know little about the factors that impact its quality. Feedback can indicate either that the addressee is aligning with the speaker (i.e. ‘positive’ feedback) or that there is some communicative trouble (i.e. ‘negative’ feedback). This study provides an in-depth account of listener feedback in task-oriented dialogue (a director–matcher game), where positive and negative feedback is produced, thus expressing both alignment and misalignment. By manipulating the listener’s cognitive load through a secondary mental task, we measure the effect of divided attention on the quantity and quality of feedback. Our quantitative analysis shows that performance and feedback quantity remain stable across cognitive load conditions, but that the timing and novelty of feedback vary: turns are produced after longer pauses when attention is divided between two speech-focused tasks, and they are more economical (i.e. include more other-repetitions) when unrelated words need to be retained in memory. These findings confirm that cognitive load impacts the quality of listener feedback. Finally, we found that positive feedback is more often generic and shorter than negative feedback and that its proportion increases over time.

H - 41 Examining Cross-Phasic Mechanisms of Verbal Working Memory Capacity Consumption in Monolingual Spanish-Speakers of Latin American Descent.

Cross-linguistic evidence suggests that the word length effect (WLE; rate of syllables, phonemes, or pronunciation times per word) significantly contributes to capacity estimates in the storage, but not manipulation, phase of verbal working memory (WM). However, the role of the WLE on WM limits across these phases has not been reported in monolingual Spanish-speakers. Latin American-born, monolingual Spanish-speakers (N = 84) age 18-65 were administered forward and backward directions of the digit span test across three cognitive load conditions of Spanish syllabic word length: Mexican WAIS-IV Digit Span ("Standard Load"), and two modified measures with relative ~20% decrease ("Low Load") or ~ 20% increase ("High Load") in total syllables/digit. A reverse WLE was observed during storage WM (digit span forward), where Spanish-speakers attained higher capacity estimates (p < 0.01) in High Load relative to Low Load syllabic word length. The WLE was detected during manipulation WM (digit span backward), where lower capacity limits (p < 0.001) were observed in the High Load, compared to Standard Load, condition. Unexpectedly, high loads did not yield a WLE in the storage phase, but evidence of the WLE was present in the manipulation phase. Executive-function mnemonic strategies (chunking) may have superseded the role of a WLE on storage memory, whereas a traditional WLE was observed when chunking strategies were more difficult to implement during manipulation memory. These findings aim to reduce cultural disparities in estimates of WM performance in neurocognitive and neuropsychological research with Hispanics.

Effect of a Simultaneous Mental Arithmetic Task to a MMH Lifting Task on Muscle Activity in the Trunk and Shoulders

Introduction: This study investigated the effects of concurrent mental demands on material handling tasks. Methods: Eleven subjects performed a material handling task with and without cognitive loads while lifting a 5 kg box to three different destination heights. The cognitive load was created by having participants perform a concurrent math task while lifting the box. The study measured the muscle activity in trunk and shoulder muscles. Results: The study found that, in select muscles, the cognitive load conditions led to longer lift times and increased cumulative muscle activity, but lower peak muscle activity. Conclusion: These findings suggest that lifting tasks with a concurrent cognitive load could lead to greater cumulative muscle activity, increasing the risk of muscular fatigue during manual material handling tasks.

The Effect of Implementation Intentions on Prospective Memory Commission Errors under Different Cognitive Loads.

Prospective memory (PM) refers to the ability to remember to perform a planned event or activity at a specific time or situation in the future. Implementation intentions can promote a connection between PM cues and intended actions, thus improving an individual's PM performance. However, this simple and effective encoding strategy may also have negative effects. For example, an implementation intention may result in PM commission errors that occur when an individual makes a false PM response to repeated PM cues that are no longer relevant as the PM task has been completed. Existing studies have explored the effect of implementation intentions on PM commission errors under low cognitive load. However, the role of implementation intentions in promoting linkages between PM cues and actions tends to disintegrate under high cognitive loads. Therefore, this study aimed to explore the effect of implementation intentions on PM commission errors under different cognitive load conditions. In this study, 58 college students participated in a mixed experimental design of 2 (encoding methods: implementation intention, standard) × 2 (cognitive load conditions: low, high). The results showed that implementation intentions promoted PM commission errors under the low-cognitive-load condition only, and there was no difference in the performance of ongoing tasks between the implementation intention encoding and the standard encoding conditions. However, individuals in the implementation intention condition reacted more slowly when encountering previous PM cues. The results suggest that the effect of implementation intentions on PM commission errors relies upon automated processing as a whole. However, individuals in the implementation intention condition required more attentional resources to suppress the no-longer-relevant intended actions when previous PM cues appeared, supporting the dual-mechanism theory.

The benefits of mind wandering on a naturalistic prospective memory task

Mind wandering (MW) occurs when our attention spontaneously shifts from the task at hand to inner thoughts. MW is often future-oriented and may help people remember to carry out their planned actions (Prospective Memory, PM). Past-oriented MW might also play a critical role in boosting PM performance. Sixty participants learned 24 PM items and recalled them during an immersive virtual walk in a town. The items were divided into event-based—EB and time-based—TB. During the PM retention phase, participants were randomly assigned to a high or a low cognitive load condition, in order to manipulate MW frequency. Some PM items were encoded before this MW manipulation (pre-PM) and some during the virtual walk (post-PM). A high MW frequency was linked with better global PM performances. Spontaneous past-oriented MW predicted better pre-EB retrospective PM retrieval, while spontaneous future-oriented MW predicted better Pre-EB prospective PM retrieval. Voluntary future-oriented MW predicted better post-EB retrospective retrieval. We highlighted, for the first time, a differential impact of spontaneous MW content depending on the PM component (retrospective or prospective). Past‐oriented MW is crucial for (re)consolidating PM intentions, and episodic future thinking MW for the execution of PM intentions. We discuss the twofold functional role of MW, namely, to consolidate an already programmed intention and to plan future actions.

Cognitive load causes kinematic changes in both elite and non-elite rowers

The current motor literature suggests that extraneous cognitive load may affect performance and kinematics in a primary motor task. A common response to increased cognitive demand, as observed in past studies, might be to reduce movement complexity and revert to previously learned movement patterns, in line with the progression-regression hypothesis. However, according to several accounts of automaticity, motor experts should be able to cope with dual task demands without detriment to their performance and kinematics. To test this, we conducted an experiment asking elite and non-elite rowers to use a rowing ergometer under conditions of varying task load. We employed single-task conditions with low cognitive load (i.e., rowing only) and dual-task conditions with high cognitive load (i.e., rowing and solving arithmetic problems). The results of the cognitive load manipulations were mostly in line with our hypotheses. Overall, participants reduced movement complexity, for example by reverting towards tighter coupling of kinematic events, in their dual-task performance as compared to single-task performance. The between-group kinematic differences were less clear. In contradiction to our hypotheses, we found no significant interaction between skill level and cognitive load, suggesting that the rowers' kinematics were affected by cognitive load irrespective of skill level. Overall, our findings contradict several past findings and automaticity theories, and suggest that attentional resources are required for optimal sports performance.