Cognitive Discrepancy Research Articles

Internalizing and somatic symptoms influence the discrepancy between subjective and objective cognitive difficulties in adults with ADHD who have valid and invalid test scores.

This study investigated the relationship between various intrapersonal factors and the discrepancy between subjective and objective cognitive difficulties in adults with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). The first aim was to examine these associations in patients with valid cognitive symptom reporting. The next aim was to investigate the same associations in patients with invalid scores on tests of cognitive symptom overreporting. The sample comprised 154 adults who underwent a neuropsychological evaluation for ADHD. Patients were divided into groups based on whether they had valid cognitive symptom reporting and valid test performance (n = 117) or invalid cognitive symptom overreporting but valid test performance (n = 37). Scores from multiple symptom and performance validity tests were used to group patients. Using patients' scores from a cognitive concerns self-report measure and composite index of objective performance tests, we created a subjective-objective discrepancy index to quantify the extent of cognitive concerns that exceeded difficulties on objective testing. Various measures were used to assess intrapersonal factors thought to influence the subjective-objective cognitive discrepancy, including demographics, estimated premorbid intellectual ability, internalizing symptoms, somatic symptoms, and perceived social support. Patients reported greater cognitive difficulties on subjective measures than observed on objective testing. The discrepancy between subjective and objective scores was most strongly associated with internalizing and somatic symptoms. These associations were observed in both validity groups. Subjective cognitive concerns may be more indicative of the extent of internalizing and somatic symptoms than actual cognitive impairment in adults with ADHD, regardless if they have valid scores on cognitive symptom overreporting tests.

A study of college students' perspectives on marriage immigration: Relationships of multicultural acceptance

AbstractThe objectives of this study were to explore the multicultural acceptance of college students toward new immigrants and its influencing factors, the cognitive discrepancy between college students and new immigrants, and the reasons why college students exhibit prejudice, stereotypes, and social distance toward new immigrants. The questionnaire survey approach was applied for data collection. It was found that the stereotype of college students toward new immigrants was relatively positive. College students recorded a high multicultural acceptance toward new immigrants. However, in addition to the stereotype of college students toward new immigrants, there were significant differences regarding the cognition of college students and new immigrants. The results of this study confirmed the hypothesis that stereotype, prejudice, and social distance have significantly negative influence on multicultural acceptance. The findings of this study revealed that Taiwan is an immigrant society, and there should be greater tolerance and respect for married immigrants, to prevent conflicts between different ethnic groups. A good multicultural education would help Taiwan society accept new immigrants and establish social harmony.

When leaders and their employees disagree: investigating the consequences of differences in cognitions of workplace event criticality

PurposeCriticality cognitions regarding the same workplace event often differ between leaders and employees. Nevertheless, its consequences on employee work outcomes remain unknown. In this study, we draw on cognitive dissonance theory to examine how and why leader–employee differences in cognitions of workplace event criticality impact employee job-related outcomes.Design/methodology/approachWu used multilevel polynomial regression analyses from a time-lagged, multi-source field study with 145 leader–employee dyads to test our proposed model.FindingsLeader–employee differences in cognitions of workplace event criticality can bring both benefits and perils to employees. Specifically, such differences can cause employee rumination, which in turn leads to an increase in both employee voice and fatigue.Originality/valueThis study contributes to the event and cognitive discrepancy literature in four ways. First, prior event studies largely adopted a singular employee perspective for investigation (e.g. Chen et al., 2021; Lin et al., 2021). By examining the impacts of event criticality from the dual perspective of leaders and employees, we attain a more comprehensive understanding of the implications of workplace events in organizational life. Second, extant studies have predominantly focused on the dark side of cognitive discrepancy (e.g. Bashshur et al., 2011; Erdogan et al., 2004; Grandey et al., 2013). Our study reveals that leader–employee differences in criticality cognitions can have both a bright and a dark side on employee outcomes, offering a more balanced and dialectical view of the consequences of cognitive discrepancy. Third, drawing on cognitive dissonance theory, we introduce employee rumination as an underlying mechanism to explain the impacts of leader–employee differences in criticality cognitions on employee voice and fatigue. Finally, while prior cognitive dissonance research has primarily employed an intrapersonal perspective (e.g. Sivanathan et al., 2008; Pugh et al., 2011; Grandey et al., 2013), our study adopts an interpersonal lens and underscores that interpersonal differences in cognitions can also serve as an example of cognitive discrepancy to instigate internal dissonance processes. By doing so, we enrich our understanding of cognitive dissonance theory.

Exploring behavioural patterns and their relationships with social annotation outcomes

AbstractBackgroundSocial annotation has emerged as a promising educational technology that fosters collaborative reading and discussion of digital resources among learners. While the positive impact of social annotation on students' learning process and performance is widely acknowledged, students' behavioural patterns in social annotation are underexplored.ObjectivesThis study investigated patterns in students' use of annotation and response behaviours in social annotation activities. We also explored how students' performance in the behavioural, cognitive, emotional, and social dimensions varied based on their behavioural patterns.MethodsWe recruited 93 undergraduates who were enrolled in an elective course at a large North American University. Students were tasked with collaboratively annotating the class readings uploaded to Perusall, a social annotation platform, over 7 weeks. We used metaclustering to determine the optimal number of clusters pertaining to student behaviours. We compared the differences among clusters across multiple performance dimensions.Results and ConclusionsTwo distinct clusters were identified and defined as initiators and responders. We found that responders had significantly longer active reading time and exhibited greater social annotation effort compared to initiators. However, initiators received more peer acknowledgement, as evidenced by higher upvotes. No significant difference was found in cognitive insight between initiators and responders, but responders demonstrated significantly higher cognitive discrepancy. Additionally, there were no significant differences in positive and negative tones between initiators and responders; however, responders displayed higher levels of prosocial behaviours than initiators. This study has significant practical implications regarding promoting students' collaborative learning experience in social annotation.

Aesthetic experiences and their transformative power: a systematic review.

Transformative experiences (TEs) have been conceptualized in many ways, contexts, magnitudes, and durations, but at their heart, they entail some manner of adjustment, which contributes to changing individuals' worldviews, actions, views of others and/or their own feelings, personality, and identity. Among the many elicitors identified as being able to foster TEs, an emerging body of literature has suggested that TEs might be prevalent in aesthetics or emerged from encounters with human art. Beyond denoting ordinary moments characterizing our daily lives, art and aesthetics could occasionally represent profound changes, causing shifts in our perceptions, beliefs and understanding of the world. However, in the realm of psychological inquiry, the extent to which art and aesthetics can be considered potential catalysts for transformation remains a topic of debate. Furthermore, a comprehensive identification of the key psychological components that contribute to the process of transformation before, during, and after aesthetic engagement is still missing. This systematic review endeavors to address these gaps by synthesizing literature on aesthetic transformative experiences either from the field of psychology or explicitly delving into the psychological impact of transformative experiences within the realm of art and aesthetics. It encompasses both theoretical and empirical papers to determine key aspects and psychological components that characterize TEs. Two major electronic databases were systematically searched. The review was conducted in accordance with Liberati et al. (2009) and PRISMA guidelines. All stages of the review were conducted independently by three researchers, and the protocol was published on PROSPERO (Registration no.: CRD42022298655). Although 39.440 studies were identified, only 23 peer-reviewed articles were included in this review, as most studies did not explicitly delve into the long-lasting psychological impact of art and aesthetics. The results confirm the potential of art and aesthetics as elicitors of transformation regardless of the type of artwork and the usage context. Moreover, it also identifies some psychological components necessary for transformation in the realm of art and aesthetics, including facilitating conditions/pre-expectations, cognitive discrepancy, epiphany and insight, and several after-effects on the recipient. The review aids in refining and enriching the concept of transformative experience, paving the way for further research and applications in various fields, including not only psychology but also education and therapeutic interventions. https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/prospero/, identifier CRD42022298655.

Neuromodulation of choice-induced preference changes: the tDCS study of cognitive dissonance.

Difficult choices between two equally attractive options result in a cognitive discrepancy between dissonant cognitions such as preferences and actions often followed by a sense of psychological discomfort known as cognitive dissonance. It can lead to changes in the desirability of options: the chosen option becomes more desirable, whereas the rejected option is devalued. Despite the ample experimental evidence to show this effect, the neural mechanisms and timing of such choice-induced preference changes are not fully understood. In this study, we used transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) to modulate the activity of the posterior medial frontal cortex (pMFC), which has been associated with conflict monitoring and choice-induced preference changes in neuroimaging studies. Prior to a revised version of Brehm's free-choice paradigm, participants in two experiments underwent cathodal (inhibitory) or anodal (excitatory) tDCS of the pMFC compared to sham (placebo) stimulation prior to the choice phase. Our results showed that cathodal tDCS significantly decreased the choice-induced preference change relative to a sham, but only in direct comparisons of rejected options. No significant effect of anodal tDCS in comparison with sham was observed. This study replicates the general behavioral effect of cognitive dissonance and provide partial support for the theory of the pMFC contribution to choice-related cognitive dissonance and subsequent preference changes, with possible limitations of an under-sampling for the obtained effect size and an asymmetry in the inhibitory-excitatory effects of non-invasive tDCS.

Life stories from lonely older adults: the role of precipitating events and coping strategies throughout the lifecourse

Abstract Previous research has highlighted the importance of past life experiences in the theoretical and conceptual understanding of loneliness. However, adding a lifecourse perspective to loneliness research remains underexplored. To comprehend the complexity of loneliness in old age, it is crucial to pay attention to the lifecourse perspective. This study addresses an important lifecourse perspective on loneliness through an in-depth, narrative approach. Building on the cognitive discrepancy theory, this study examines how precipitating events and coping strategies throughout the lifecourse may influence current feelings of loneliness in older adults. We qualitatively examined the experienced lifecourse of 20 lonely older adults living in Belgium by applying a modified version of the McAdams life-story interview scheme. Next, we conducted eight member-check interviews. A first finding provided insight into the importance of precipitating events during the lifecourse for current loneliness. The results pointed not only to the lifelong impact of events during childhood and adulthood, which may lead to vulnerability to loneliness later in life: unrealised life events (e.g. not being able to have children) as well as events with no impact earlier in life nevertheless turned out to be relevant in the emergence of loneliness later in life. Second, the narratives revealed that several older adults who experienced loneliness earlier and later in life continued to use the same coping strategies throughout the lifecourse, whereas by contrast some older adults adapted their coping strategies based on previous experiences and improved their loneliness-coping skills. It also appeared that changes in people's resources, such as the presence of physical limitations, may make it more difficult to cope with loneliness in later life. The discussion makes a plea for lifelong prevention of and attention to loneliness.

Discrepancy between objective and subjective cognition and its association with the trajectory of symptoms and functioning in depressive patients.

Discrepancy between objective and subjective cognitive deficit is common among patients with major depressive disorders (MDDs) and may play a key role in the mechanism linking cognition with recovery of symptom and psychosocial function. This study, therefore, explores the cognitive discrepancy, and its association with the trajectory of symptoms and functioning over a 6-month period. We used data from the Prospective Research Observation to Assess Cognition in Treated patients with MDD (PROACT) study, from which 598 patients were included. Cognitive discrepancy scores were computed using a novel methodology, with positive values indicating more subjective than objective deficit (i.e. 'underestimation') and negative values indicating more objective than subjective difficulties (i.e. 'overestimation'). Linear growth curve models were employed to examine the association of the cognitive discrepancy with the trajectory of depressive symptoms, psychosocial function, and quality of life. About 68% of patients displayed disproportionately more objective than subjective cognitive deficit at baseline, and the mean cognitive discrepancy score was -1.4 (2.7). Overestimation was associated with a faster decrease of HDRS-17 (β = -0.46, p = 0.002) and a faster decrease of psychosocial function in social life (β = -0.13, p = 0.013) and family life (β = -0.12, p = 0.026), and a greater improvement of EQ-5D utility score (β = 0.01, p < 0.001). We found a lower sensitivity of cognitive deficit at baseline and its decrease was associated with better health outcomes. Our findings have clinical implications of the necessity to assess both subjective and objective cognition for identification and categorization and to incorporate cognitive and psychological therapies for optimized treatment outcomes.

Who benefits from brief motivational intervention among young adults presenting to the emergency department with alcohol intoxication: A latent-class moderation analysis.

Research has not identified which patients optimally benefit from brief Motivational Interviewing (bMI) for heavy drinking when delivered to young adults in the Emergency Department (ED). We conducted secondary analyses of data from a randomized controlled trial in which 344 young adults (18-35 years) presenting to the ED with alcohol intoxication received either bMI or Brief Advice (BA, control group). We used Latent Class Analysis to derive participants' profiles from baseline characteristics (i.e., sex, age, severity of alcohol use disorder, attribution of ED admission to alcohol use, importance, and confidence to change, cognitive discrepancy, anxiety, depression, and trait reactance). We then conducted a moderation analysis to assess the number of heavy drinking days at short-term (1-month) and long-term (12-month) follow-up using negative binomial regressions with interactions between the intervention and derived classes. Fit statistics indicated that a 4-class solution best fit the data. Class 3 (high severity, importance and discrepancy, and low confidence and anxiety) benefitted more from bMI than BA at short- and long-term follow-up than Class 1 (younger; lowest severity, importance, discrepancy, reactance, anxiety and depression, and highest confidence). Class 2 (older; highest severity, importance, discrepancy, reactance, anxiety and depression, and lowest confidence) also benefitted more from bMI than BA than did Class 1 at short-term follow-up. In these significant contrasts, Class 1 benefitted more from BA than bMI. There were no significant interactions involving Class 4 (more likely to be women; low severity; high levels of anxiety, depression, and reactance). This study identified the patient profiles that benefitted more from bMI than BA among nontreatment-seeking young adults who present intoxicated to the ED. The findings have implications for intervention design and argue for the importance of research aimed at developing intervention content tailored to patient profiles.

Параметрическая картина мира в американской и русской культурах в переводе наименований линейных мер: когнитивный и прагматический аспекты

The aim of the research is to bring out the differences in the representation of some fragments of the parametric worldview in American English and in Russian through the translation of the names for linear measures considering the cognitive and pragmatic factors. The fragments under study include spatial and quantitative characteristics of objects in literary discourse. The scientific novelty of the research consists, firstly, in identifying the influence of the cognitive factor of the observer and their gender on translation of the names for linear measures; secondly, in distinguishing the observer-character of the literary work and the observer-translator from the point of view of the impact of the gender factor on translation. In accordance with this, it is argued that the impact of the cognitive factor of the observer on translation of the names for linear measures can be twofold, that is objective and subjective. As a result of the scientific research, some differences in the perception of parametric characteristics of objects and the representation of knowledge about them in literary discourse were demonstrated; the differences are expressed in precision in English and approximation in Russian. This cognitive discrepancy is reflected in translation of the names for foreign cultural units of measurement: the translators resort to a cognitive-pragmatic ad-aptation, employing the generalization and substitution techniques.

SOCIAL ISOLATION AND LONELINESS AMONG OLDER ADULTS IN SUBSIDIZED SENIOR HOUSING: DOES IMMIGRATION STATUS MATTER?

Abstract Older immigrants are at increased risk for social isolation and loneliness due to cultural and linguistic barrier to forming social networks. The vulnerability to social isolation could be exacerbated by the gaps between older immigrants’ cultural expectations on social relations and actual social connectivity. Guided by the cognitive discrepancy model of loneliness, this study examined how social isolation influences loneliness among low-income older residents living in subsidized senior housing and if the relation varies by immigration status. Survey data were collected in 2019 and 2020 from 231 residents in subsidized senior housing communities located in St. Louis and Chicago. Social isolation was measured by frequency of social contacts, accounting for the types of relationships (family vs. friends) and the modes of contacts (in-person vs. remote). Loneliness was measured by the Revised University of California Los Angeles loneliness scale. Perceived quality of friendship was also included in the analytic models. The results of multiple linear regression showed that having positive friendship (b=-1.00, p&amp;lt;.001) and more frequent in-person contacts with friends (b=-1.29, p&amp;lt;.001) were negatively associated with loneliness, respectively. A significant moderating effect was found that older immigrants felt less lonely than non-immigrant counterparts when they had more in-person family contacts (b=-1.09, p&amp;lt;.05). The results suggest that the impacts of social isolation on loneliness among senior housing residents could differ depending on immigration status. The findings of this study could contribute to developing culturally sensitive interventions to enhance social connectedness and reduce loneliness among older immigrants in subsidized senior housing.

INTERFACE OF INFORMAL AND FORMAL SUPPORT IN THE LINKAGE BETWEEN COGNITIVE DECLINE AND LONELINESS

Abstract Older adults with cognitive impairment are at risk of higher loneliness due to increasing challenges to retain essential social skills and decreasing social networks. This study explores ways to reduce the relationship between cognitive function and loneliness. Drawing on the cognitive discrepancy theory of loneliness, we hypothesized loneliness may be reduced by improving an individual’s actual level of social interaction, creating opportunities for social relationships. This study examined complex relationships among informal (frequency of social contact with family members and friends) and formal support (use of home- and community-bound services, HCBS), and loneliness, among older adults with different levels of cognitive impairment. Data came from the Health and Retirement Study (2012) (N=651) with the sample included respondents 51+ years who completed a modified Telephone Interview for Cognitive Status. Results from hierarchical regression showed older people with a lower level of cognitive function were less likely to experience loneliness (b=-.15, p&amp;lt;.01). Although frequent social contact with family and friends reduces loneliness (b=-.24, p&amp;lt;.001), it did not moderate the relationship between cognitive function and loneliness. Interestingly, the use of HSBC also turned out to be not a significant protective factor. Our findings suggest merely increasing social interaction levels with family and friends may not necessarily curb loneliness for older adults with cognitive impairment. Given the current characteristics and nature of HCBS primarily focus on providing basic physical needs of older adults, prioritizing the development of emotional comfort and recreational activities that alleviate their psychological loneliness is essential, especially amidst the pandemic.

Ex-military personnel's experiences of loneliness and social isolation from discharge, through transition, to the present day.

This study aimed to examine the unique factors of loneliness and social isolation within the ex-military population from discharge, through transition, to the present day. A qualitative, Phenomenological approach was adopted. In-depth semi-structured interviews were carried out with 11 participants who had all served in the British Armed Forces and represented all three military services (Royal Navy; Army; Royal Air Force). Reflexive Thematic Analysis was used to analyse the data. Three themes were generated-a sense of loss; difficulty in connecting in civilian life; and seeking out familiarity. The findings of this study were examined through the lenses of the Social Needs Approach and the Cognitive Discrepancy Model. Individuals developed close bonds in the military through meaningful and prolonged contact, reducing feelings of loneliness and social isolation during their time in service. The sense of belonging was key to social connection, but transition out of the military severed existing relationships, and a lack of belonging hindered the development of relationships within the civilian community. This study has implications for service provision relating to ex-military personnel and future service leavers.

Methods used by psychologists for identifying dyslexia: A systematic review.

Inconsistencies in the operationalisation of dyslexia in assessment practices are concerning. Variations in different countries' education contexts and education-related legislation could contribute to continuing discrepancies between psychologists' assessment practices. However, an international "snapshot" of these practices is unavailable. An international comparison of psychologists' dyslexia assessment practices could help ascertain whether there are contextual factors that can foster converging practices. Accordingly, this study systematically reviewed the literature to capture how psychologists identify and/or diagnose dyslexia across English-speaking countries. Quantitative and/or qualitative studies, published between 2013 and 2021, that investigated psychologists' self-reported methods for assessing, identifying, and/or diagnosing individuals with dyslexia were included. Eleven studies (published across fourteen papers) met the inclusion criteria. Most included studies sampled school psychologists who work in the USA. Psychologists' dyslexia assessment practices were diverse (including the use of cognitive discrepancy and response-to-intervention methods). The results highlight an international need to develop a consensus operational definition of dyslexia and universal assessment guidelines. Future research might investigate the practices and beliefs of psychologists who work outside of the USA, and to be inclusive of adult populations. Implications for research and training are explored.

The Impact of Structural and Functional Social Resources on Loneliness Among Americans Age 50 Years and Older

Social isolation and loneliness have many negative consequences (e.g., Cacioppo et al., 2006; Griffin et al., 2018; Uchino, 2006), especially among older adults (Perissinotto et al., 2012). According to the cognitive discrepancy theory (CDT), loneliness is the negative psychological state resulting from the perceived discrepancy between one’s desired level of social resources and one’s actual level of social resources (Peplau & Perlman, 1982; Perlman & Peplau, 1998). Social resources have both structural (e.g., objective) and functional (e.g., perceptions of the quality) aspects (Holt-Lunstad, 2017). The relationship between structural and functional social resources has been described as a filtration process in which functional aspects mediate the association between structural aspects and loneliness (Cacioppo et al., 2016; Hawkley et al., 2008, Hawkley & Kocherginsky, 2018). However, this filtration model has not been empirically tested within the CDT. This study examined the relationship among structural social resources (SSR), functional social resources (FSR), and loneliness cross-sectionally and longitudinally using a sample of 3,345 Americans aged 50 years and older from the 2008 and 2012 waves of the Health and Retirement Study. Results showed that there was a significant indirect effect both cross-sectionally (β = -.07) and longitudinally (β = -.06) such that FSR mediated the relationship between SSR and loneliness. Ultimately, the CDT is useful in explaining the complex relationship between structural and functional aspects of one’s social resources with loneliness, and interventions may seek to target the functional aspects of one’s social network to improve loneliness, rather than focusing solely on structural aspects.

Protective and Exacerbating Cognition and Attribution Factors From the Cognitive Discrepancy Theory of Loneliness

According to the cognitive discrepancy theory, although the discrepancy between actual and desired social resources may result in loneliness, Perlman and Peplau (1998) suggested that cognitive processing and attributional style also impact the interpretation of social information. Previous empirical research investigating predictors of loneliness have not assessed a wide range of cognition and attribution factors, so this study filled this gap by examining how protective (optimism, sense of mastery, and purpose in life) and exacerbating (depression, control constraints, negative self-perceptions of aging (SPA), and experiences of age-based discrimination) factors influence and moderate the experience of loneliness cross-sectionally and longitudinally using a sample of 3,345 Americans aged 50 years and older from the 2008 and 2012 waves of the Health and Retirement Study. Optimism (βs = -.15, -.13), mastery (βs = -.08, -.07), purpose in life (βs = -.19, -.18), depression (βs = .22,.14), control constraints (βs = .18, .17), negative SPA (βs = .13, .14), and experiences of ageism (βs = .07, .06) were significantly related to loneliness cross-sectionally and longitudinally, respectively. Optimism buffered the negative impact of poor functional social resources (e.g., low social support) on loneliness cross-sectionally while control constraints, negative SPA, and experiencing ageism exacerbated the relationship between low functional social resources and loneliness cross-sectionally. None of the protective or exacerbating factors modulated the relationship between functional social resources and loneliness longitudinally. These findings have important implications for the development of interventions that target loneliness. Targeting maladaptive cognitions may be particularly effective in reducing loneliness.

“Your Cognition, My Territory”: Charismatic Leaders’ Management of Follower Cognitive Dissonance

In their role as a leader and in the process of achieving their goals, charismatic leaders incorporate various strategies to utilize certain capabilities of their followers. One form of such strategies is to manage followers’ cognitive dissonance. To manage others’ dissonance could be implemented as acting to either reduce or induce it. In this paper, we propose that charismatic leaders may seek to, through various mechanisms, facilitate either cognitive discrepancy reduction or induction in followers. Drawing on the self-standards and the action-based models of cognitive dissonance theory, we explain how charismatic leaders are empowered to do so by the interaction of situational opportunities and their own motivations and abilities. Specifically, we focus on the relevant impression management techniques (i.e., amplifying, scripting, promotion, and exemplification) that charismatic leaders utilize in the process of managing followers’ dissonance. We also propose that the type of the charismatic relationship, i.e., personalized or socialized, formed between leaders and followers of certain characteristics, moderate this process.

Correlates of the discrepancy between objective and subjective cognitive functioning in non-demented patients with Parkinson\u2019s disease

BackgroundSubjective complaints of cognitive deficits are not necessarily consistent with objective evidence of cognitive impairment in Parkinson’s disease (PD). Here we examined the factors associated with the objective-subjective cognitive discrepancy.MethodsWe consecutively enrolled 90 non-demented patients with PD who completed the Parkinson’s Disease Cognitive Functional Rating Scale (subjective cognitive measure) and the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA; objective cognitive measure). The patients were classified as “Overestimators”, “Accurate estimators”, and “Underestimators” on the basis of the discrepancy between the objective vs. subjective cognitive measures. To identify the factors distinguishing these groups from each other, we used chi-square tests or one-way analyses of variance, completed by logistic and linear regression analyses.ResultsForty-nine patients (54.45%) were classified as “Accurate estimators”, 29 (32.22%) as “Underestimators”, and 12 (13.33%) as “Overestimators”. Relative to the other groups, the “Underestimators” scored higher on the Fatigue Severity Scale (FSS), Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), and Parkinson Anxiety Scale (p < 0.01). Logistic regression confirmed that FSS and BDI scores distinguished the “Underestimators” group from the others (p < 0.05). Linear regression analyses also indicated that FSS and BDI scores positively related to objective-subjective cognitive discrepancy (p < 0.01). “Overestimators” scored lower than other groups on the MoCA’s total score and attention and working memory subscores (p < 0.01).ConclusionIn more than 45% of consecutive non-demented patients with PD, we found a ‘mismatch’ between objective and subjective measures of cognitive functioning. Such discrepancy, which was related to the presence of fatigue and depressive symptoms and frontal executive impairments, should be carefully evaluated in clinical setting.

``Your Cognition, My Territory”: Charismatic Leaders’ Management of Follower Cognitive Dissonance

In their role as a leader and in the process of achieving their goals, charismatic leaders incorporate various strategies to utilize certain capabilities of their followers. One form of such strategies is to manage followers’ cognitive dissonance. To manage others’ dissonance could be interpreted as acting to either reduce or induce it. In this paper, we propose that charismatic leaders may seek to, through various mechanisms, facilitate either cognitive discrepancy reduction or induction in followers. Drawing on the self-standards and the action-based models of cognitive dissonance theory, we explain how charismatic leaders are empowered to do so by the interaction

A Cross-Lagged Panel Analysis of the Relationship Between Loneliness and Depression

Loneliness and depression have similar psychological features but are theoretically and statistically distinct (Hawkley et al., 2008). Most research has examined a unidirectional relationship between loneliness and depression (Cacioppo et al., 2006). Cacioppo et al. (2010), however, found that loneliness predicted subsequent depression, but depression did not predict subsequent loneliness. We extended this work by examining the reciprocal relationship between loneliness and depression in 1,560 healthy adults (ages ranging from 18-95 years at baseline) from the Virginia Cognitive Aging Project using cross-lagged panel analysis across three time points. Depression more strongly predicted subsequent loneliness (βs= 0.16 and 0.23, p < .05) than vice versa. These findings are consistent with the cognitive discrepancy theory, suggesting that affective processing, like depression, can negatively impact one’s perception of their social environment (Burholt & Scharf, 2014). Our findings highlight the need for increased longitudinal research examining the relationships among indices of well-being across adulthood.