Codex Alimentarius Commission Research Articles

LC-MS/MS and GC-MS/MS Cross-Checking Analysis Method for 426 Pesticide Residues in Agricultural Products: A Method Validation and Measurement of Uncertainty.

A method was developed to analyze residual pesticides in various vegetables using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) and gas chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (GC-MS/MS). A method can analyze over 200 individual compounds, selectively separate peaks within 30 min, and meet various criteria such as those by the Codex Alimentarius Commission (CODEX). Most compounds showed recovery rates between 70 and 120%, and a relative standard deviation was within 20%. Measurement uncertainty, considering various influencing factors such as instrument precision, method sensitivity, experimental conditions, sample handling, and analytical procedures, was meticulously calculated. The expanded uncertainties of cross-checking 33 available pesticides ranged from 10.1 to 26.2 μg/kg at a confidence level of approximately 95%. Risk assessment of detected pesticides in agricultural products indicated a safety range of 0.00003-2.87240%. The developed method effectively analyzes diverse compounds simultaneously, contributing to agricultural product safety.

Lessons Learned and Outcomes from Risk-Based Modernisation of Post-Mortem Inspection and Disposition Criteria of Beef, Sheep, Goat, and Pig Carcasses in Australia.

The lessons learned from reviewing national risk assessments to modernise the Australian Standard for the post-mortem inspection and disposition judgement of beef, sheep, goat, and pig carcases are discussed. The initial risk profiles identified priorities for quantitative assessments. Broadly, the main difficulty encountered was the paucity of quantified performance for the current inspection. Resolving this involved acquiring gross abnormality data representing regional production/proportional abattoir volumes, the range of gross abnormalities appearing nationally, proportional occurrence at carcase sites, and seasonality to enable the comparison of procedures. The methodologies followed the Codex Alimentarius Commission's risk assessment guidelines and are fully documented in the associated publications. The evidence and discussion are provided for the associated challenges experienced, including preventing contamination, the use of food chain information to support amendment, inspection as a part of industry Quality Assurance programmes, and opportunities to improve inspector training. The criteria considered by the Competent Authority for the determination of the equivalence of alternative post-mortem inspection techniques included comparisons of public health risk, non-detection rates for gross abnormalities, and microbial contamination resulting from inspection activities, as appropriate. Most of the gross abnormalities detected arose from animal health and welfare conditions affecting wholesomeness and did not present as food safety hazards. The non-detection rates between the current and alternative inspection (observation) were negligible. A quantitative risk assessment for Cysticercus bovis was conducted. Carcases with multiple gross abnormalities predominantly reflected historic infections (prior septicaemia), where trimming achieved wholesomeness unless they were cachexic.

Determination of Total Aflatoxins in Polished Rice by Liquid Chromatography-Fluorescence Detection with Multifunctional Column Cleanup and Precolumn Derivatization: Single-Laboratory and Inter-Laboratory Validation Studies.

Aflatoxins are toxic metabolites produced by Aspergillus spp. Because aflatoxins are potent carcinogens in humans and animals, many countries have set regulatory limits for aflatoxins in foods to prevent dietary exposure. From a global food safety perspective, in 2023, the Codex Alimentarius Commission established the maximum level (ML) of total aflatoxins in certain cereals and cereal-based products, including polished rice. Therefore, validated analytical methods for aflatoxin detection are necessary. In this study, a high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)-fluorescence method coupled with multifunctional column clean-up and trifluoroacetic acid derivatization was developed for the determination of aflatoxin levels in polished rice. Our method was validated in a single laboratory study using aflatoxin-spiked materials, followed by an inter-laboratory validation study. Twelve laboratories participated in the inter-laboratory validation study, and five polished rice test samples artificially contaminated with aflatoxins were analyzed. In a single laboratory study, the ranges of mean recoveries of aflatoxin B1, B2, G1, G2, and total aflatoxins were 101%, 100-103%, 93-96%, 95-98%, and 97-99%, respectively. The relative standard deviations for within-day and between-day variations were all ≤ 4.4%. In the inter-laboratory validation study, the relative standard deviations for repeatability and reproducibility were from 0.7 to 2.7% and 3.3 to 8.9% for all analytes, respectively. In response to the Codex ML and method performance criteria for aflatoxins in polished rice, an analytical method based on HPLC-fluorescence detection was developed. All method performance parameters estimated from the testing results of the single-laboratory and inter-laboratory validation studies met the criteria required by the Codex. Single- and inter-laboratory studies for the validation of an analytical method for aflatoxin level determination in polished rice were successfully performed. This analytical method will be suitable to determine aflatoxin levels around the Codex ML set for polished rice.

A method validation of determination of melamine in marketed infant formula and milk powder of Iran

Melamine is a recognized food contaminant that can arise incidentally or intentionally in specific categories of food. This study aimed to validate the melamine detection and quantification in infant formula and milk powders and also analyzed 40 samples consist of infant formula and milk powders from commercially available food products, from different geographic regions of Iran. The approximate content of melamine in samples was measured by High-performance liquid chromatography-ultra violet (HPLC–UV) system. A calibration curve (R2 = 0.9925) was established for detection of melamine in the range of 0.1–1.2 μg mL−1. Limit of quantification and limit of detection were 1 μg mL−1 and 3 μg mL−1, respectively. The presence of melamine in infant formula and milk powdered was investigated and it was observed that the amount of melamine in samples of infant formulas and milk powders was 0.001–0.095 mg kg−1 and 0.001–0.004 mg kg−1, respectively. These values were found to be within the prescribed limits by the European Union and Codex Alimentarius Commission legislation. It is important to note that the consumption of these dairy products, which contain low content of melamine, does not pose any significant threat to consumer health. Furthermore, the results of the risk assessment confirmed this issue.

Review of the existing maximum residue levels for difenoconazole according to Article 12 of Regulation (EC) No 396/2005.

According to Article 12 of Regulation (EC) No 396/2005, EFSA has reviewed the maximum residue levels (MRLs) currently established at European level for the pesticide active substance difenoconazole. To assess the occurrence of difenoconazole residues in plants, processed commodities, rotational crops and livestock, EFSA considered the conclusions derived in the framework of Council Directive 91/414/EEC, the MRLs established by the Codex Alimentarius Commission as well as the European authorisations reported by Member States and the UK (including the supporting residues data). Based on the assessment of the available data, MRL proposals were derived, and a consumer risk assessment was carried out. Some information required by the regulatory framework was missing and a possible acute risk to consumers was identified. Hence, the consumer risk assessment is considered indicative only, some MRL proposals derived by EFSA still require further consideration by risk managers and measures for reduction of the consumer exposure should also be considered.

Occurrence of aflatoxin M1 in cheese products commonly available in Sri Lankan market

Aflatoxins (AFs) are a group of mycotoxins produced by certain fungi of Aspergillus spp. AFs of major concern are B1 (AFB1), B2 (AFB2), G1 (AFG1), G2 (AFG2), and M1 (AFM1). AFM1 is a hydroxylated metabolite of AFB1 formed inside the animal's body which is excreted into milk of cows that consumed AFB1 contaminated feed. Consumption of AFM1-contaminated milk and subsequent dairy products causes negative health effects in consumers. This study was conducted to determine the occurrence and levels of AFM1 in cheese products available in the Sri Lankan market where AFM1 is not regularly monitored in milk while having an outdated regulatory limit of 1 ppb established for dairy products. Processed cheese (n = 28), hard cheese (n = 14), semi-hard cheese (n = 5), and soft cheese (n = 3) representing seven popular brands were collected. The samples were analyzed by Ultra High-Performance Liquid Chromatography Fluorescence Detection. AFM1 was detected in 40 samples (80 %), while 17 (34 %) and 37 (74 %) of the samples had AFM1 levels exceeding the maximum permitted limit set by Codex Alimentarius Commission (0.5 ppb) and the Netherlands (0.2 ppb). Further, 10 samples violated the Sri Lankan maximum limit of 1 ppb. Thirteen out of the 14 hard cheese (92.9 %, 0.11–14.43 ppb) and all semi-hard cheese samples (100 %, 0.29–0.65 ppb) contained AFM1. Most of the soft (66.7 %, 0.35–0.45 ppb) and processed (71.4 %, 0.11–1.35 ppb) cheese samples had AFM1. Most of the locally manufactured cheese products in Sri Lankan market may pose health risks to consumers. The results highlight the significance of regular monitoring of AFM1 in dairy products and the importance of updating regulations on par with international standards concurrently to ensure consumer safety.

An ecological reorientation of the Codex Alimentarius Commission could help transform food systems.

The Codex Alimentarius Commission (Codex) has a substantial influence over the structure and operation of food systems by setting international standards that affect the composition, structure and labelling of food. Despite the dual mandates of Codex to protect public health and ensure fair practices in food trade, food systems are increasingly unhealthy and unsustainable. An ecological reorientation of the decision-making elements that influence how Codex sets food standards-particularly mandates, governance and risk assessment-could help transform food systems towards the UN Sustainable Development Goals.

A recipe for safer food: The theory of change underpinning risk analysis in the context of the Codex Alimentarius

Food safety has benefited from systematic approaches to assess and control risks. The paradigm of risk analysis calls for the components of risk assessment and risk management to be bridged and complemented with risk communication, yet still be separate activities. In practical terms, risk assessment and risk management are, in fact, heavily interdependent upon one another. Collectively, risk assessments, risk management and risk communications are tools or processes that deliver specific outputs. For food safety enhancement, these outputs must be translated into outcomes to yield the desired impacts—improved food safety, human health, and livelihoods. The purpose of this paper to illustrate, using the example of listeriosis, how steps in the risk analysis process used by the Codex Alimentarius Commission's, Codex Committee on Food Hygiene (CCFH), of the and the FAO/WHO Joint Expert Meeting on Microbiological Risk Assessment (JEMRA) align with the various components of the theory change, ultimately leading to impacts on food safety, enhanced health and livelihoods on the global scale.

Monitoring and Health Risk Assessment of Lead and Cadmium in Date Palm Fruit Cultivars Growing in Morocco.

The present study aimed to investigate the levels of two toxic trace elements (lead (Pb) and cadmium (Cd)) in 84 date fruit samples of four varieties (Mejhoul, Bouittob, Aziza and Boufegouss) produced in four Moroccan areas, using graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometry, and to assess their risk to the consumer health. Results showed that out of the total samples, Pb was detected in 39 date fruit samples (46.43%) in the range of 0.0001-0.118mg/kg, with an average level of 0.016 ± 0.0005mg/kg. For Cd levels, a total of 40 samples (47.62%) were found to be contaminated with Cd levels ranging from 0.0004 to 0.752mg/kg, with a mean value of 0.079 ± 0.003mg/kg. Cadmium levels exceeded the European maximum regulatory limit (MRL) of 0.020mg/kg in 17 date samples, which represents 20.24%. However, only one sample (1.19%) was above the MRL for Pb (0.10mg/kg) set by the Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC). The hazard quotient (HQ) and hazard index (HI) values were found to be below 1. Furthermore, cancer risk (CR) levels exceeded the acceptable ranges. As a result, the non-carcinogenic risk assessments have concluded that consuming date fruits is safe and unlikely to harm harmful effects to the consumers. However, the date consumption may pose a significant lifetime carcinogenic risk to consumers from date-growing regions.

Microbiological survey and physicochemical analysis of Moroccan durum, soft and red wheat landraces

Morocco possesses a significant genetic diversity of wheat cultivars in the form of landraces conserved by local farmers in several regions. This study aimed to evaluate the microbiological quality of refined flour and bran derived from 75 samples of Moroccan durum, soft, and red wheat landraces and to estimate their microbiological stability for controlling and preventing undesirable microbial proliferation. Various microbial and physicochemical parameters were evaluated according to ISO and AOAC standards, and results were interpreted based on Codex Alimentarius Commission regulation. Compliance of the analyzed refined flour and bran samples with current regulatory limits and satisfactory microbiological quality were observed. The phenotypic characterization revealed the identification of 16 yeast species belonging to the genera Trichosporon, Candida, Cryptococcus, Rhodotorula, and Saccharomyces, which had not been previously explored. Furthermore, the biodiversity of lactic acid bacteria is notably characterized by the predominance of Pediococcus acidilactici and Lactobacillus plantarum species. The analysis of moisture content and water activity exhibited values falling below the maximum limits defined by international standards, demonstrating the effectiveness of the implemented processing and storage practices. The neutral pH recorded confirms the absence of excessive proliferation of the assessed microbial contaminants. The abundant availability of carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and minerals creates a favorable non-competitive environment essential for maintaining their functional stability in the analyzed samples. These findings hold significant implications for the agricultural and food industries, providing insights into preserving indigenous wheat varieties and producing safe wheat-based products with high nutritional quality.

Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons Contamination and Quality of Locally Produced Crude Palm Oil in South-South Zone, Nigeria

Background: Oil palm, Elaeis guineensis Jacq is a perennial crop mainly cultivated for its vegetable oil. The fatty acid composition of crude palm oil (CPO) is mostly composed of palmitic, stearic oleic, and linoleic acids. Objectives: This study evaluated the quality of locally produced CPO from six states of South-South zone, Nigeria. Methods: The parameters of CPOs were characterized by specific gravity (SG), acid value (AV), percentage of free fatty acid (%FFA), and saponification value (SV) and peroxide value (PV). Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in CPO were quantified using standard procedures, the related risk due to daily consumption of 25 g was characterized by lifetime cancer risk (LCR) and margin of exposure (MOE). Results: The study observed that the mean values of the parameters were 0.931 SG; 5.01 mgKOH g-1 AV; 2.28% FFA; 177.27 mgKOH g-1 SV and 29.65 meqO2 kg-1 PV. Apart from %FFA, the others did not meet the requirements recommended by the Codex Alimentarius Commission of the joint WHO/FAO. Diagnostic ratios of PAHs suggested a mixture of petrogenic and pyrogenic origins. The MOEs showed low health concern while 16PAH-LCR values which ranged from 2.48E-04 - 4.48E-04 were unacceptable. The screening value 0.003 was significantly (p> 0.05) lower than the computed total BaP equivalent (BaPeq) values indicating potential human health concerns. It is recommended that CPO processing and storage methods should be properly monitored to prevent quality reduction and contamination, which might have adverse effect on consumers.

Critical vulnerabilities of food selections based on nutrient content claims and reference amounts of food and creating a reliable procedure

Computing the food component (nutrient) amount in 100 kilocalories, 100 grams or 100 milliliters, the reference amount customarily consumed (RACC), or 50 grams of food demonstrates the food component amount of some foods unsuitably. So, selecting some foods based on them may elevate the hazards of some chronic diseases. Computing the food component amount and assessing suitable levels of food components and the nutritional quality according to the Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC), the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA), and the suggested procedure were implemented on 8,596 food cases, 29 food components, and 25 food categories. Selecting some foods under the FDA and CAC to reach sufficient intakes of positive food components surpassed energy demands. Selecting some foods under the CAC did not satisfy the demands of positive food components. Some foods that satisfied the demands of positive food components were not suitable food selections under the CAC. Selecting some foods under the FDA or CAC surpassed the demands of negative food components (including cholesterol, energy, fat, saturated fat, and sodium). Some foods that did not surpass the demands of negative food components were not suitable food selections under the CAC or FDA. Due to the vulnerabilities of selecting foods on the basis of the reference amounts of food, fast foods under the CAC and FDA in serving size (the serving size or serving is obtained from the RACC), spices and herbs under the CAC in 100 grams or 100 milliliters, and vegetables and vegetable products under the CAC in 100 kilocalories obtained the highest average scores for nutritional quality based on positive food components (including vitamins, protein, dietary fiber, and minerals, excluding sodium) among food categories for children aged four years and older and adults.Graphical

Vendors' handling practices of edible long-horned grasshoppers (Ruspolia differens) products and implications on microbial safety.

Edible grasshopper, Ruspolia ruspolia, has nutritional and cherished cultural and economic importance to people from diverse cultures, particularly in over 20 African countries. It is consumed at home or commercially traded as sautéed, deep-fried, or boiled products. However, there is limited information on the hygiene practices of the vendors and the implications on the microbial safety of the final product. This research aimed at assessing the food safety knowledge, handling practices and shelf life of edible long-horned grasshopper products among vendors and the microbial safety of ready-to-eat products sold in 12 different markets in Uganda. Samples of raw, deep-fried and boiled grasshoppers were randomly collected from 74 vendors (62% street and 38% market vendors) and subjected to microbial analysis. Over 85% of the vendors surveyed had no public health food handler's certificate and >95% had limited post-harvest handling knowledge. Total aerobic bacteria (7.30-10.49 Log10 cfu/g), Enterobacteriaceae (5.53-8.56 Log10 cfu/g), yeasts and molds (4.96-6.01 Log10 cfu/g) total counts were significantly high and above the acceptable Codex Alimentarius Commission and Food Safety Authority of Ireland (FSAI) limits for ready-to-eat food products. Eight key pathogenic bacteria responsible for foodborne diseases were detected and these isolates were characterized as Bacillus cereus, Hafnia alvei, Serratia marcescens, Staphylococcus aureus, S. xylosus, S. scuiri, S. haemolyticus, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Findings from this study highlight the urgent need to create local and national food safety policies for the edible grasshopper "nsenene" subsector to regulate and guide street and market vending along the value chain, to prevent the transmission of foodborne diseases to consumers.

Residues determination, risk assessment, and dissipation behavior of myclobutanil formulation on apple.

This study aimed to investigate the dissipation pattern, risk assessment, and waiting period of myclobutanil on apple fruit (Malus domestica Borkh.) under temperate conditions in Kashmir, India. The study involved the application of myclobutanil 10 WP at a single recommended dosage (125 g a.i.ha-1) and double dosage (250 g a.i.ha-1) on Red Velox apple trees, 2 months before harvest. GC equipped with an electron capture detector was used to analyze myclobutanil residues in fruit samples. The study revealed that myclobutanil, at both recommended and double recommended doses, dissipated rapidly and became nondetectable after 55 and 60 days, respectively. The waiting period for myclobutanil application was determined to be 12.41 days for the single dose and 25.58 days for the double dose, respectively. These waiting periods were based on the maximum residue limit of 0.6 ppm as prescribed by the Codex Alimentarius Commission, Food Safety and Standards Authority of India, and European Commission. The study concludes that myclobutanil 10 WP is safe for consumers at both recommended and double recommended doses when applied 2 months before harvest. Risk assessment, considering the average daily apple consumption in India and theoretical maximum residue contributions (TMRCs), indicates negligible health hazards even at double the recommended dosage. The calculated TMRC values at Day 0 were significantly below the maximum permissible intake. For average and maximum myclobutanil residues at single and double doses, the TMRC values were found to be 0.0069 and 0.0070 mg day-1 person-1 and 0.0105 and 0.0106 mg day-1 person-1, respectively. These results indicate that myclobutanil, when used according to recommended dosages and waiting periods, poses minimal health risks to consumers. The study emphasizes the importance of prudent fungicide use to minimize fungicide residues on fruits, thereby ensuring their safety for consumption.

Enhancing global food safety standards through international collaboration and policy harmonization

In an increasingly interconnected world, ensuring the safety of the global food supply has emerged as a paramount concern. With foodborne illnesses affecting millions annually and international trade in food products reaching unprecedented levels, the need for robust food safety standards has never been more pressing. This abstract explores the vital role of international collaboration and policy harmonization in enhancing global food safety standards, with a focus on the mechanisms, challenges, and potential solutions involved. At the heart of global food safety efforts lie collaborative endeavors among nations facilitated by international organizations such as the World Health Organization (WHO), the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), and the Codex Alimentarius Commission. These entities serve as platforms for harmonizing food safety regulations by developing science-based standards, guidelines, and codes of practice. Through regular consultations, expert committees, and consensus-building processes, these organizations foster agreement on key principles and practices governing food safety across diverse national contexts. However, achieving harmonization in food safety policies poses significant challenges. Divergent regulatory frameworks, varying levels of institutional capacity, and disparities in resources among countries can impede efforts to establish uniform standards. Moreover, geopolitical tensions and trade disputes may hinder cooperation, leading to fragmentation in global food safety governance. Addressing these challenges requires concerted efforts to build trust, enhance communication, and promote transparency among stakeholders. Technological innovations offer promising avenues for overcoming barriers to international collaboration and policy harmonization in food safety. Blockchain technology, for instance, enables transparent and tamper-proof recording of food supply chain data, enhancing traceability and accountability. Internet of Things (IoT) devices provide real-time monitoring of food storage and transportation conditions, helping to prevent contamination and spoilage. Artificial Intelligence (AI) algorithms analyze vast datasets to identify emerging food safety risks and inform regulatory decision-making. By leveraging these technologies, countries can strengthen their capacity to implement harmonized food safety standards and improve compliance with international regulations. Furthermore, public-private partnerships play a crucial role in advancing global food safety initiatives. Collaboration between governments, industry stakeholders, academia, and civil society organizations facilitates knowledge sharing, capacity building, and resource mobilization. By pooling expertise and resources, these partnerships enable more effective surveillance, response, and mitigation of food safety risks on a global scale. Moreover, they promote information exchange and best practice dissemination, fostering a culture of continuous improvement in food safety management. Policy harmonization efforts must also embrace risk-based approaches to prioritize interventions and allocate resources effectively. By identifying and assessing food safety hazards based on their likelihood and severity, countries can tailor their regulatory measures to address the most significant risks. Moreover, regular monitoring, evaluation, and review of food safety policies are essential to ensure their relevance, effectiveness, and adaptability in the face of evolving threats and challenges. Enhancing global food safety standards requires sustained international collaboration and policy harmonization. By fostering consensus, leveraging technology, and fostering partnerships, the international community can strengthen the resilience of the global food system, protect public health, and promote equitable access to safe and nutritious food for all.

Recovery of Omega-3-Rich Lipids: Toward the Sustainable Valorization of Sea-Bass Industry Side Streams

This study pertains to the selection of the appropriate process parameters of lipid extraction aimed at the valorization of sea-bass gutting and filleting side stream biomass. A comparative kinetic study between an environmentally friendly polar (ethanol) and a conventional non-polar solvent (hexane) was implemented to determine the effect of temperature, solvent to solid ratio and time, providing insights in terms of the yield recovery and quality of omega-3 fatty acids. Maximum recovery yield (43.8 and 34.0 g/100 g of dried gutting and filleting by-products, respectively) was achieved within 10 min. In gutting by-products, ethanol achieved full lipid recovery at 35 °C and a 50:1 ratio, while for hexane, the maximum yield was 83%. In the case of filleting side-streams, hexane achieved exhaustive recovery at a 50:1 ratio and 20 °C compared with ethanol, where a higher temperature (50 °C) was needed for exhaustive recovery to be achieved. Differences were attributed to the diverse fatty acid profiles among the two by-products, with 27.3% and 40.8% polyunsaturated fatty acids in viscera and fish frames, respectively. All extracts at 20 °C and 35 °C remained below the oxidation limit set by the Codex Alimentarius Commission (peroxide value < 5 meqO2/kgoil; p-anisidine value < 20). Therefore, green solvents could assist conventional extraction, combining high efficiency and an improved environmental impact.

Tetracycline and sulphonamide residues in farmed fish in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania and human health risk implications

ABSTRACT In Africa, antibiotic residue investigations in animal food have primarily been focused on meat, neglecting farmed fish. This cross-sectional study conducted in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, aimed to assess sulphonamide and tetracycline residues in farmed fish, comparing levels with Codex Alimentarius Commission’s acceptable daily intake (ADI) and maximum residue limits (MRLs). A total of 84 farmed fish were sampled and analysed in the presence of tetracycline and sulphonamide residues. All samples were positive for sulphonamide residues (100%; n = 84), and 2.4% (n = 2) were positive for tetracycline and consequently also positive for both compounds. Tetracycline levels were below ADI and MRL, 28.5% (n = 24) surpassed the ADI, and 6% (n = 5) of the samples exceeded the MRL for sulphonamide. Regular monitoring of antibiotic residues in aquaculture products is crucial to mitigate health risks and expanding assessments to include other commonly used compounds is warranted.

International Standards for Regulatory Deference Relating to National Food Control Systems: More to Do?

AbstractThis paper describes how the development of texts on regulatory deference by the Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC) addresses relevant recommendations of the World Trade Organization (WTO) and supports Member countries of CAC in their negotiation and implementation of equivalence agreements. We consider the role and function of CAC within a rules-based multilateral framework, particularly in relation to the development and implementation of equivalence concepts. We then consider whether, through use of equivalence agreements, trade facilitation outcomes have been realised. Our hypothesis is that international standards on regulatory deference promote fair but aspirational standards and support fair practices in the trade of safe food – both vital outcomes for global food security and the achievement of many of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals. We test this hypothesis against the framework provided by decisions of the WTO Sanitary and Phytosanitary Committee. We argue that the equivalence concepts and guidelines developed by CAC are appropriate but underutilised tools available for Member countries to strike a balance between their right to regulate to protect human, animal or plant life and health and to fulfil legitimate objectives whilst meeting their WTO obligations to avoid measures that constitute unnecessary barriers to trade.

Physicochemical and Fatty Acid Profile of Refined Tuna Fish Oil By-Product from Canning and Meal Fish Industries

Fish oil by-product (FOB) recovered from the precooking process in the cannery industry and the pressing process in fish meal production are potential resources. However, this fish oil still needs a refinery process to improve the quality of fish oil. This study aimed to identify the physicochemical characteristics of the initial fish oil by-product, the physicochemical profiles, and fatty acids of the fish oil by-product after degumming neutralization and bleaching (bentonite, zeolite, and carbon adsorbents) processes from the cannery and fish meal industry. Results showed the initial physicochemical characteristics of fish oil waste from fish flour have lower quality than canned products (acid value, free fatty acids, PV, AV, TOTOX value, viscosity, and refractive index) but are inversely proportional to the iodine value. Results showed degumming (D) and neutralization (N) processes from the Fish oil canning process (FCP) and Fish oil meal process (FMP) could improve the quality parameters of fish oil by-products by reducing the acid value (7.90, 0.65, 9.17, 0.58 mg KOH/g), respectively; free fatty acid (3.97, 0.33, 4.60, 0.29 % oleic) respectively; peroxide value (PV) (15.18, 7.38, 17.64, 7.10 mEq/kg), respectively; anisidine value (AV) (14.36, 6.61, 14.64, 6.51) respectively; total oxidation (TOTOX) value (44.72, 21.37, 49.64, 20.71) respectively; and iodine (167, 153, 163, 155 mg/100 g), respectively as well as increasing the lightness (23.80, 25.70, 20.65, 26.00), respectively. In the bleaching process (B), zeolite (15 %) was an effective adsorbent to obtain oil with the best quality parameters due to zeolite possessed greater polarity and surface area at a higher concentration, which resulted in the acid value for FCP and FMP (0.26, 0.22 mg KOH/g); free fatty acid (0.13, 0.15 % oleic); PV (2.44, 5.71 mEq/kg); AV (2.5, 4.9); TOTOX value (7.16, 9.11); and iodine (138, 151 mg/100 g) as well as increasing the lightness (37.08, 36.74) that are appropriate to International Fishmeal & Oil Manufacturers Association (IFOMA), Codex Alimentarius Committee (CAC), and International Fish Oils Standards (IFOS) standards (p < 0.05). All adsorbents effectively increase the brightness of the FOB. The higher the concentration of adsorbents, the higher the clarity of the FOB. For zeolite absorbents, there was an increase of 16.73 - 32.3 % for FCP and 15.39 - 32.69 % for FMP, but the viscosity decreased with a range of 24.50 - 36.50 cPs. FCP contains 14 fatty acids, while FMP contains 12 fatty acids. The number of SFA and MUFA detected in FCP is lower than in FMP. In contrast, the amount of PUFA in FCP is relatively higher than in FMP. The percentage of EPA and DHA in FCP is lower than in FMP. Overall, the refining process affects the fatty acid composition of fish oil by-products both in the canning process and in fish meal. HIGHLIGHTS Fish oil by-product (FOB) of yellowfin tuna (Thunnus albacares) from the fish canning process (CP), and fish meal process (MP) streams were successfully purified through a chemical process which was by IFOMA, CAC, and IFOSH standards Zeolite resulted in the best fish oil quality at higher concentrations The Final Fish oil canning process (FCP) was mainly composed of linoleic, whereas the Fish oil meal process (FMP) was highly distributed in oleic and palmitic acid The sum of PUFA in FCP after bleaching was relatively higher than in FMP GRAPHICAL ABSTRACT

NGOs and Global Business Regulation of Transnational Alcohol and Ultra-Processed Food Industries

Abstract The intensification of efforts by state and nonstate actors to address issues affecting global health has produced a patchwork of transnational regulatory governance. Within this field, nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) are expected to perform authoritative roles in holding business actors to account and enhance the democratic legitimacy of institutions via their participation in governance processes. While there exists a large body of conceptual and empirical research on global business regulation and private authority, we surprisingly know little about the governance functions of NGOs engaged in influencing the practices of corporations that produce health-harming commodities. This knowledge gap is especially pronounced in the issue area of noncommunicable diseases. This article begins to address this gap by mapping the networks of NGOs that engage in regulatory activities (rule-setting, monitoring, and enforcement) related to the (ultra)processed food and alcohol industries. We identify the networks of NGOs involved in global policy making across health, regulatory standards, and multistakeholder initiatives using nonstate actor submissions to consultations held by World Health Organization, UN Codex Alimentarius Commission (Codex), and the UN Global Compact. This paper examines NGO governance functions and their patterns of engagement and participation across institutional spheres. Overall, the article makes a twofold contribution to existing debates. First, we identify the governance functions through which NGOs attempt to hold corporations to account, contrasting their “watchdog” function with other governance functions. Second, we examine the representation of NGOs, highlighting asymmetries in participation of NGOs in the Global North and South.