CoCrFeMnNi High-entropy Alloy Research Articles

Influence of Solution Alkalinity and Alternating Current Density on Anti-corrosion Property of CoCrFeMnNi High-Entropy Alloy in Simulated Concrete Pore Solution

Influence of Solution Alkalinity and Alternating Current Density on Anti-corrosion Property of CoCrFeMnNi High-Entropy Alloy in Simulated Concrete Pore Solution

Effects of Selective Laser Melting Process Parameters on Structural, Mechanical, Tribological and Corrosion Properties of CoCrFeMnNi High Entropy Alloy

AbstractThe structural, tribological, mechanical, corrosion, and other properties of materials produced by laser-based powder bed fusion additive manufacturing methods are significantly affected by production parameters and strategies. Therefore, understanding and controlling the effects of the parameters used in the manufacturing process on the material properties is extremely important for determining optimum production conditions and for saving time and materials. This study aimed to determine the optimal laser parameter values for CoCrFeMnNi high-entropy alloy powders using the selective laser melting (SLM) method. The layer thickness was kept constant during experimentation. 5 different laser powers and 10 varying laser scanning speeds were tested, with hatch spacing from 30 to 90%. After determining the optimal laser parameters for SLM, prismatic samples were fabricated in different build orientations (0°, 45°, and 90°), and subsequently, their structural, mechanical, tribological, and corrosion properties were compared. Melt pool morphology could not be obtained at 20—40 and 60W laser powers and at all laser scanning speeds used at these laser powers. At 100 W laser power, 600 mm/s laser scanning speed, and 70% hatch spacing parameters, an ultimate tensile stress of 550 MPa and elongation of 48% were obtained. Among the samples produced in different build orientations, the sample produced with a 0° build orientation exhibited the highest relative density (99.94%), the highest microhardness (201.2 HV0.1), the lowest friction coefficient (0.7025), and the lowest wear and corrosion rates (0.7875 mpy). Additionally, SLM parameters were evaluated to have a significant impact on the performance of all properties of the samples. Graphical Abstract

Plane-Stress Deformation Behavior of CoCrFeMnNi High-Entropy Alloy Sheet under Low Temperatures

High-entropy alloys are promising candidates expected to be applied in transportation equipment serving in extreme environments due to their excellent properties. CoCrFeMnNi high-entropy alloy is a typical representative of them, and its low temperature performance is excellent. In this study, to evaluate the feasibility of forming HEA shells, the deformation behavior of CoCrFeMnNi under a plane-stress state at lower temperatures was thoroughly studied. Firstly, a thin-walled HEA tube was fabricated using hot extrusion and further formed into a thin shell for uniaxial tensile and biaxial bulging tests. Subsequently, uniaxial tensile tests at cryogenic temperatures were conducted. Both the strength and the ductility improves as the temperature decreases from −160 °C to −196 °C. Then, a systematic low-temperature bulging test was performed using isothermal dome tests and the thickness uniformity analysis of the bulged specimens was carried out. In addition, grain microstructural observation using EBSD was characterized analyze the possible deformation mechanism at the cryogenic temperature under the biaxial stress state. This study, for the first time, investigated the biaxial deformation behavior of HEA. Considering the plane-stress state deformation is the dominant type in the thin-walled shell deformation, this study enables us to provide direct guidance for various sheet-forming processes of HEAs.

Revealing the inhomogeneous nature of microstructure and texture evolution in the cold-rolled CoCrFeMnNi alloy during static recrystallization

In the present investigation, equiatomic CoCrFeMnNi high entropy alloy (HEA) was subjected to 80% cold rolling (as-rolled) followed by isothermal annealing treatment at 700 °C for different time periods. Microstructural characterization was performed using electron back-scattered diffraction (EBSD) and electron channeling contrast imaging (ECCI) techniques on the as-rolled and annealed samples. The as-rolled microstructure consisted of elongated grains mainly composed of strong α-fiber and weak γ-fiber textures. The as-rolled sample showed the formation of ingrain SBs in the γ-fiber grains, which served as preferential sites for grain nucleation. The annealing treatment of as-rolled samples at 700 °C cause static recovery (SRV) before 5 minutes of heat-treatment, whereas static recrystallization (SRX) was observed after 5 minutes of heat-treatment in the CoCrFeMnNi alloy samples. A faster rate of recrystallization kinetics was observed after 15 minutes of heat-treatment. The annealing treatment reduced the intensity of α-fiber and enhanced the Copper, Cube and P ({011}<122>) texture components. Copper components originated from coarse recrystallized grains, which were the results of localized grain growth phenomena. Unusual behavior of banded featured α-fiber grains was observed during the annealing process. These banded grains in the partially annealed samples consisted of subgrain-boundaries and showed a delayed response to recrystallization as compared to grains with other orientations. Stored energy (SE) and Taylor factor (M) calculations were also used to understand the delayed recrystallization response of the banded featured/retained deformed grains. The microhardness value of the as-rolled sample was approximately 450 Hv, which decreased to around 230 Hv for the fully recrystallized grains.

Effects of single and simultaneous Fe, He ions irradiations on CoCrFeMnNi high entropy alloy

Simultaneous irradiation was performed on CoCrFeMnNi high entropy alloy (HEA) at room temperature using Fe ions and He ions, and single Fe ions irradiation and single He ions irradiation were used as comparisons. The synergistic effect of the two ions on irradiation-induced defects such as dislocation loops and He bubbles, as well as the effect of irradiation damage on the nano-hardness were investigated. As the irradiation dose increased, a distribution with small and dense dislocation loops was first formed in CoCrFeMnNi HEA, and then these dislocation loops merged and grew. However, compared to pure metal, CoCrFeMnNi HEA entered the dislocation loop merging stage at a higher threshold dose due to its higher defect recombination capacity and higher critical stress of initial dislocation motion. Compared with the single Fe ions irradiation, the addition of He in the simultaneous irradiation accelerated the merging and growth of dislocation loops and decreased the density of dislocation loops. At the same He dose, simultaneous irradiation produced a higher vacancy concentration than single He ions irradiation, which increased He mobility, leading to wider He bubble layer and larger He bubble size. CoCrFeMnNi HEA hardened after irradiation with all three parameters in the order of single He ions irradiation > single Fe ions irradiation > simultaneous Fe+He ions irradiation. This study provided a deeper understanding of the irradiation damage mechanism of HEA in complex irradiation environment.

Multi-scale analysis of microstructural evolution and atomic bonding mechanisms in CoCrFeMnNi high-entropy alloys upon cold spray impact

Multi-scale analysis of microstructural evolution and atomic bonding mechanisms in CoCrFeMnNi high-entropy alloys upon cold spray impact

Comparison of the Sliding Wear of Single-Phase F.C.C Carbon-Doped Fe40.4Ni11.3Mn34.8Al7.5Cr6 and CoCrFeMnNi High-Entropy Alloys at Cryogenic Temperature

Comparison of the Sliding Wear of Single-Phase F.C.C Carbon-Doped Fe40.4Ni11.3Mn34.8Al7.5Cr6 and CoCrFeMnNi High-Entropy Alloys at Cryogenic Temperature

Mechanical-thermal coupling fatigue failure of CoCrFeMnNi high entropy alloy

High entropy alloys exhibit excellent performance under different-temperature conditions. In order to investigate the effect of temperature on the mechanical-thermal coupling fatigue failure of classical CoCrFeMnNi high entropy alloy to accelerate the application of high entropy alloys, the uniaxial tensile and fatigue tests at temperatures ranging from RT to 500 °C were conducted, and statics simulation analysis of fatigue specimens under fatigue loading conditions was conducted. The results of the uniaxial tensile tests illustrated that the yield stress and tensile strength of the alloy decreased with increasing temperature. In contrast, the elongation after the fracture of the alloy increased with temperature. The fatigue test results revealed that the fatigue life decreased as the temperature increased. The fracture morphology of the fatigue specimens and the flank morphology and dislocation distribution near the crack nucleation zone were collected to support the investigation. Accordingly, the reasons for the high-temperature-induced decrease in fatigue crack nucleation and propagation lives were systematically investigated. The main reasons for the higher-temperature-induced decrease in crack nucleation lives were a decrease in the yield stress of the alloy, more easily triggered dislocation motion and stress homogenization. The reasons for the decrease in fatigue crack propagation lives induced by higher temperatures were the more prone occurrence of dislocation motion, a decrease in yield stress, and a decrease in the area of the crack propagation region.

Enhancement in interfacial bonding quality of CoCrFeMnNi high-entropy alloy vacuum hot-compression bonding via surface shot peening

Vacuum hot-compression bonding (VHCB) is an advanced solid-state bonding technique. To expand its application in high-entropy alloys (HEAs), a new strategy to enhance the interfacial bonding quality of CoCrFeMnNi HEA VHCB joints by surface shot peening (SP) was proposed, and the effects of SP treatment on the interfacial bonding behavior and mechanical properties of VHCB joints were investigated. The results revealed that SP treatment introduced a nanocrystalline layer and plastic deformation layer with non-uniform strain on the specimen bonding surface, and a hierarchical grain size gradient fine microstructure was formed by a static recrystallization process under the thermal activation condition before VHCB. During the bonding process, the fine microstructure of the SP-treated layer was retained and provided a large number of grain boundaries and dislocations, which facilitated atomic diffusion and plastic flow in the interfacial region and promoted the closure of interfacial voids and the dissolution of interfacial oxide particles. Additionally, interfacial crystallographic and tensile test analyses indicated that the SP treatment induced a multiple interfacial grain boundary (IGB) migration mechanism in the VHCB joints, which dramatically improved the IGB migration level and ultimately led to a complete recovery of the mechanical properties of the CoCrFeMnNi HEA VHCB joints.

Strength-Ductility Mechanism of CoCrFeMnNi High-Entropy Alloys with Inverse Gradient-Grained Structures.

The microstructures and mechanical properties of equiatomic CoCrFeMnNi high-entropy alloys (HEAs) treated with various processing parameters of laser surface heat treatment are studied in this paper. The typical inverse gradient-grained structure, which is composed of a hard central layer and a soft surface layer, can be obtained by laser surface heat treatment. A much narrower gradient layer leads to the highest yield strength by sacrificing ductility when the surface temperature of the laser-irradiated region remains at ~850 °C, whereas the fully recrystallized microstructure, which exists from the top surface layer to the ~1.05 mm depth layer, increases the ductility but decreases the yield strength as the maximum heating temperature rises to ~1050 °C. Significantly, the superior strength-ductility combination can be acquired by controlling the surface temperature of a laser-irradiated surface at ~1000 °C with a scanning speed of ~4 mm/s due to the effect of hetero-deformation-induced strengthening and hardening, as well as the enhanced interaction between dislocation and nanotwins by the hierarchical nanotwins. Therefore, retaining the partial recrystallized microstructure with a relatively high microhardness in the central layer, promoting the generation of hierarchical nanotwins, and increasing the volume proportion of gradient layer can effectively facilitate the inverse gradient-grained CoCrFeMnNi HEAs to exhibit a desirable strength-ductility synergy.

New insights on bonding mechanism of FCC and BCC high entropy alloy microparticles upon supersonic impact using micromechanical adhesion test

Coating buildup in cold spraying (CS) relies on particle bonding upon impact, thus making it a significant area of study. High entropy alloys (HEAs) are a class of materials with superior work-hardening ability and resistance to softening, making their particle impact and bonding particularly important to understand for their cold sprayability. In this study, the splat adhesion strength is measured with a scratch test for FCC CoCrFeMnNi and BCC AlCrFeMnNi HEA microparticles deposited on mirror-polished SS304 substrates. Nanoindentation tests were conducted to estimate the tensile and shear strengths of the HEA powders. The results showed that particle deformation and jetting were dominant in the FCC HEA/SS304 system, while substrate deformation was dominant in the BCC HEA/SS304 system. Focused ion beam cross sections of particles confirmed that the FCC HEA had good bonding and underwent significant deformation and grain refinement at the substrate/particle interface, while the BCC HEA had limited bonding only in the sheared zone of the particles.In spite of the very limited deformation of BCC splats, their average adhesion strength was measured to be 451 ± 141 MPa, which is significantly higher than that of FCC splats, with an average value of 308.7 ± 69.3 MPa. Fracture surface analysis revealed that FCC splats consistently exhibit ductile fracture, regardless of whether it occurs at the particle, substrate, or interface. In contrast, for BCC splats, fracture was ductile when occurring at the interface and substrate sides, while it was cleavage when occurring on the particle side. These findings suggest that the toughness and shear strength of the bonding developed at the interface were higher than those of the particle. It was found that the flattening ratio (FR) of the particles decreases for both FCC and BCC HEA splats with an increase in particle size, resulting in a decrease in adhesion strength. Metallurgical bonding has been identified as the primary factor contributing to the adhesion strength of both FCC and BCC HEA splats. Particle penetration, indicative of mechanical interlocking, appears to have little or no effect on adhesion strength. However, it does positively influence the increase in adhesion energy of the splats.

Effect of titanium on the structural, mechanical and surface properties of CoCrFeMnNiTix high entropy alloy fabricated by selective laser melting

In this study, the effect of titanium (Ti) on the microstructure, mechanical properties, wear resistance and corrosion behavior of CoCrFeMnNi high-entropy alloy (HEA) was examined. The selective laser melting (SLM) method was used to produce HEAs without Ti addition (HEA-1) and with Ti additions of 3 and 5 wt% (HEA-2 and HEA-3, respectively). While the HEA-1 sample exhibited a single-phase face-centered cubic (FCC) structure, the HEA-2 and HEA-3 samples exhibited intermetallic phase structures (Sigma and Laves) along with FCC. The addition of Ti and the presence of intermetallic phases in the HEA-2 sample revealed an improvement in mechanical properties without reducing the ductility value of the structure. However, in parallel with the increasing Ti ratio, the formation of more brittle intermetallic phases in the microstructure of the HEA-3 alloy caused a significant increase in strength but a decrease in ductility. Microstructural examinations revealed that all alloys had a cellular/dendritic structure and the relative densities of the samples were above 99%. While the ultimate tensile stress (UTS) of the HEA-1 sample was 548 MPa and the UTS of the HEA-3 alloy was 832.1 MPa, elongation values were obtained as 48% and 2%, respectively. HEA-2 sample exhibited more ideal results with an elongation value of approximately 22% and UTS values of 760.8 MPa. It was observed that the addition of Ti significantly increased the wear resistance in sliding conditions due to the increase in the hardness of the alloy. The highest hardness and lowest wear rate were obtained with HEA-3 coded samples. The HEA-1 sample exhibited the best corrosion rate, with higher corrosion potential (Ecorr) and lower corrosion current density (Icorr) values. The highest corrosion rate was observed in the HEA-3 sample.

Atomistic simulation of nanoindentation behavior of amorphous/crystalline dual-phase high entropy alloys

High-entropy alloys (HEAs) are a new type of multi-principal metal materials that exhibit excellent mechanical properties. However, the strength–ductility balance in the HEAs remains a challenge that needs to be addressed. The amorphous/crystalline (A/C) structure is a new design strategy to achieve high strength and excellent ductility of the HEAs. Here, the influences of amorphous layer spacing, indenter velocity, and indenter radius on the mechanical properties and microstructure evolution of the A/C dual-phase CoCrFeMnNi HEAs under nanoindentation were investigated by molecular dynamics (MD) simulation. The results indicate that the plastic deformation mechanism of the monocrystalline HEAs is mainly dominated by the nucleation and slip of dislocations, while the plastic deformation mechanism of the dual-phase HEAs is mainly dominated by the interaction between dislocations and amorphous phases. The results show that the average indentation force of the dual-phase HEAs increases with the increase of the amorphous layer spacing. The amorphous layer in the HEAs can hinder the expansion of dislocations, limiting them to the crystalline matrix between the two amorphous layers. The results also indicate that Young's modulus of the HEAs increases with the increase of the indentation velocity and indentation radius. However, the hardness of HEAs is positively correlated with the indenter velocity, and negatively correlated with the indenter radius. It should be noted that the critical indentation depth and critical indentation force for the plastic deformation of the dual-phase HEAs decrease with the increase of indenter velocity, which is opposite to that of the single-phase crystalline HEAs.

Suppressed Plastic Anisotropy via Sigma-Phase Precipitation in CoCrFeMnNi High-Entropy Alloys.

The effect of sigma-phase precipitation on plastic anisotropy of the equiatomic CoCrFeMnNi high-entropy alloy was investigated. Annealing at 700 °C after cold-rolling leads to the formation of the Cr-rich σ phase with a fraction of 2.7%. It is experimentally found that the planar anisotropy (∆r = -0.16) of the CoCrFeMnNi alloy annealed at 700 °C is two times lower than that of the alloy annealed at 800 °C (∆r = -0.35). This observation was further supported by measuring the earing profile of cup specimens after the deep drawing process. The plastic strain ratio, normal anisotropy, and planar anisotropy were also predicted using the visco-plastic self-consistent model. The results indirectly indicated that the reduction of plastic anisotropy in alloy annealed at 700 °C can be attributed to the formation of the σ phase.

A flow model in CoCrFeMnNi high-entropy alloys during high-temperature tension

At high temperatures, serrated flows are frequently observed on the stress–strain curves of single-phase high-entropy alloys, indicating their unique mechanical behavior. In the current study, the CoCrFeMnNi (Cantor alloy) alloy was selected as a model material to further verify the temperature dependence on the serrated flow behavior through continuous temperature variation during tensile tests, which shows a certain strengthening effect of the serrated flow. The lattice strain and dislocation density were calculated at different conditions using the Williamson–Hall (W-H) analysis method. Based on the strain dependence of mobile dislocation density and forest dislocation density, a flow stress model related to the Portevin–Le Chatelier (PLC) effect was proposed to quantify the variation in the PLC behavior with the temperature and its influence on flow stress. The model is beneficial to accurately account for the flow stress during plastic deformation at high temperatures.

Effects of grain boundary and gradient structure on machining property of CoCrFeMnNi alloys

CoCrFeMnNi high-entropy alloy (HEA) has a high degree of thermodynamic stability and excellent ductility, making it a crucial structural material. However, the plastic deformation and microstructural behavior of gradient grain structured CoCrFeMnNi HEA under cutting remain unclear. In this study, the machining properties of gradient nanostructured CoCrFeMnNi HEA under conventional cutting were investigated by molecular dynamics simulation. The results displayed that the small grain gradient samples exhibited grain size softening. The shear angle and cutting ratio increased with the increase in the grain gradient. The grain boundaries of the low grain gradient samples were damaged and slid during the cutting process. Moreover, the dislocation density increased with the increasing grain gradient. The multi-dislocation nodes and the Lomer–Cottrell junction were produced in the grain coarsening gradient samples, contributing to work hardening. The cutting forces from low to high cutting velocities were 136.70, 147.91, 165.82, and 164.79 nN, which confirmed that the cutting forces increased with increased cutting velocity. This work elucidated the cutting mechanism of the nanostructured CoCrFeMnNi HEA and highlighted the influence of the gradient grain sizes.

Fabrication of spatially-variable heterostructured CoCrFeMnNi high entropy alloy by laser processing

This study investigates the fabrication of spatially-variable heterostructured CoCrFeMnNi high entropy alloy (HEA) using pulsed laser processing. Two distinct fabrication approaches, involving single-(SP) and double-sided (DP) laser passes, were employed. Microstructural characterization through electron backscatter diffraction revealed significant differences. SP-HEA exhibited a spatially heterogeneous microstructure with coarse columnar grains, while DP-HEA displayed a sandwich-like structure with fine equiaxed recrystallized grains. Microhardness mapping demonstrated a gradient trend in SP-HEA, with the fusion zone exhibiting the lowest hardness and the base material the highest. In contrast, DP-HEA displayed an overall soft-hard-soft structure. Tensile testing revealed distinct mechanical responses, with DP-HEA exhibiting higher strength and ductility compared to SP-HEA. The improved performance of DP-HEA was attributed to a more uniform distribution of heterogeneity, minimizing mechanical interactions between soft and hard domains. Moreover, corrosion resistance was assessed, showing that DP-HEA outperformed SP-HEA and non-processed material, suggesting superior stability in corrosive environments. These findings highlight the profound influence of fabrication parameters on the microstructure and mechanical properties of spatially-variable heterostructured HEAs. The study contributes valuable insights for material design and applications based on CoCrFeMnNi high entropy alloys.

Local mechanical properties of dissimilar metal TIG welded joints of CoCrFeMnNi high entropy alloy and AISI 304 austenitic steel

Multiple principal element alloys encompass the well-known high entropy alloys (HEA). The alloy system represents a new class of materials consisting of at least three alloying elements, each containing 5 to 35 at.%. Thus, this alloying concept differs fundamentally from conventional materials such as steel or nickel alloys. For this purpose, the alloying elements are specifically selected, the microstructures are adjusted in a single-phase and, in some cases, multi-phase manner. In particular, conflicting goals, such as the trade-off between strength and ductility in conventional steels, are overcome. However, in the last 20 years, the focus has been on material synthesis. With the increase in available material quantities, the focus is now on processing issues such as joining and welding processes. The weldability of HEAs has received very little attention so far. The experience with dissimilar metal welds is completely lacking but is essential for the application of these materials in combination with conventional materials. The present study presents comprehensive experimental results on the weldability of an equimolar CoCrFeMnNi-HEA in cold-rolled and heat-treated condition, which was joined by tungsten inert gas welding to an austenitic steel AISI 304. The mechanical properties of the dissimilar metal welds were characterized by cross-weld tensile samples, whereas the local deformation in the weld of the different welding zones was measured by digital image correlation. In accordance with the respective initial HEA condition (cold-rolled vs. heat-treated), the local strain behavior was divergent and influenced the global mechanical properties of both DMW types. Nonetheless, the experiments provided proof in principle of the weldability for dissimilar joints of the CoCrFeMnNi-HEA welded to conventional materials like austenitic stainless steels ensuring a corresponding capability for mechanical loading. This allows further considerations on the application of these innovative materials.

Diffusion in ultra-fine-grained CoCrFeNiMn high entropy alloy processed by equal-channel angular pressing

Grain boundary diffusion in severely plastically deformed (SPD) CoCrFeMnNi high entropy alloy (HEA) has been studied by applying the tracer diffusion technique. After two passes of equal channel angular pressing (ECAP), three untra-fast diffusion paths in ECAP-processed CoCrFeMnNi HEA were distinguished, which were identified with twin boundaries, high-angle grain boundaries and porosity defects. The enhanced diffusivity is induced by a high strain localization in the vicinity of interfaces in a deformation-induced non-equilibrium state that is correlated with the pronounced deformation twinning due to the low stacking fault energy of the material.

Effects of heat treatment cooling methods on precipitated phase and mechanical properties of CoCrFeMnNi–Mo5C0.5 high entropy alloy

C and Mo in the form of solid solution atom or compound phase is distributed in CoCrFeMnNi high entropy alloy (HEA), which have the effects of solution strengthening or second phase strengthening. CoCrFeMnNi–Mo5C0.5 HEA were prepared by adding C and Mo elements to CoCrFeMnNi HEA, and then which heat treatment were carried out by furnace-cooling, air-cooling and water-cooling respectively. the microstructure and phase composition of as-cast or heat treated CoCrFeMnNi–Mo5C0.5 HEA were examined by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy dispersive spectrometry (EDS) and X-ray diffraction (XRD), the mechanical properties of as-cast or heat treated CoCrFeMnNi–Mo5C0.5 HEA were tested by the tensile test and hardness test, and the effects of heat treatment cooling methods on precipitated second phase and mechanical properties of CoCrFeMnNi–Mo5C0.5 HEA were investigated. The results show that precipitated second phase in CoCrFeMnNi–Mo5C0.5 HEA is MC phase, which is rich in Mo, Cr and C elements. With change of heat treatment cooling methods from furnace-cooling, air-cooling to water-cooling respectively, heat treatment cooling rate is increased. With increase of heat treatment cooling rate, the amount and size of precipitated second phase are all decreases, and the position of second phase precipitation changes from grain boundaries to intragranular. The tensile strength and elongation of heat treatment water-cooled CoCrFeMnNi–Mo5C0.5 HEA are 739 MPa and 41% respectively, which are realizes the simultaneous increased of strength and plasticity. With increase of heat treatment cooling rate, the hardness of CoCrFeMnNi–Mo5C0.5 HEA decreases, the uniform plastic deformation and the elongation are all increases, and the plasticity increase. The fractures of as-cast, heat treatment furnace-cooled, air-cooled and water-cooled CoCrFeMnNi–Mo5C0.5 HEA are all brittle fracture with cleavage characteristics, and the plastic deformation occurs mainly in the uniform plastic deformation stage. The fracture mode of as-cast CoCrFeMnNi–Mo5C0.5 HEA is intergranular fracture, the fracture mode of heat treatment furnace-cooled, air-cooled and water-cooled CoCrFeMnNi–Mo5C0.5 HEA are all transgranular fracture.