Cocoa Plots Research Articles

Unmasking gender disparities in cocoa farming: the case of female land ownership in the Ashanti and Western North regions of Ghana

AbstractGhana's economy relies heavily on agriculture, with subsistence farming being the primary source of income for rural households. Over 50% of the food grown worldwide is produced by women. Land ownership is paramount to be recognized as a cocoa farmer in Ghana, as most land is owned by men following traditional inheritance. This gives men access to, and control over, land for agriculture, thus creating structural gender inequalities. Thereby, women's contribution to agriculture is minimized and roles undermined. This study analyses the challenges faced by women cocoa farmers in the context of land ownership and how they are influenced by social and demographic factors. We focus on ownership including sole ownership. The study, conducted in seven communities across the Ashanti and Western North regions of Ghana, comprises 160 females and 40 males. Results indicate that ownership of cocoa plots, in general, is mostly male dominated, but when female farmers make farmland decisions, they are likely to be sole owners. Marital status and the mode of acquiring lands are very important factors that dictate ownership and sole ownership of land. While the results show the importance of land as a resource that can enhance women's agricultural productivity, it also highlights that policies to reduce gender inequality in agriculture by advancing land rights are needed.

Concentraciones de glifosato y 2,4-diclorofenoxiacético en granos, hojas y suelos en cultivos de cacao (Theobroma cacao L.) en la región San Martín, Perú

El objetivo de la investigación se centró en identificar parcelas cacaoteras con presencia de glifosato y 2,4-diclorofenoxiacético; así como cuantificar estas moléculas en suelos, hojas y granos fermentados secos de cacao en 16 zonas productoras de cacao (Theobroma cacao L.) en la región San Martín. Las muestras se analizaron mediante cromatografía líquida de ultra alta resolución (UHPLC). Encontrándose concentraciones de glifosato en suelos entre 0,1751 y 0,5925 ppm; por su parte en hojas de cacao se encontraron concentraciones entre 0,0015 y 0,2639 ppm. En granos secos fermentados de cacao se obtuvieron valores de glifosato entre 0,0427 y 0,5518 ppm. En lo referente a valores de 2,4-diclorofenoxiacético, los suelos presentaron concentraciones desde 0,2248 hasta 0,7201 ppm; mientras que en hojas se reportaron valores entre 0,0011 y 0,3307 ppm. En granos secos de cacao la cuantificación fue desde 0,0708 hasta 0,6491 ppm. Se estableció que existen contrastes significativos (p < 0,05) entre las cantidades de glifosato y 2,4-diclorofenoxiacético en suelos, hojas y granos secos de cacao. Afinando que los valores de glifosato y 2,4-diclorofenoxiacético encontrados en granos secos de cacao en el 93,75% de las parcelas superan los LMR que dicta la NTS No 128-2016/MINSA/DIGESA que es de 0,1 ppm para dichos analitos.

Spatial variation in cocoa insect pest populations and its implication for pest management

ABSTRACT Currently, mirids, stink bugs and coreid bugs are the most important insect pests of cocoa in Ghana. The populations of these insect pests are known to be influenced by the availability of food and breeding sites, as well as the macro and micro climates in cocoa farms. The study investigated variations in the population dynamics of these pests and their damage trends within a square mile (259 hectares). Pest numbers and damage were assessed monthly on 100 trees per plot from 2015 to 2020, each plot measuring one acre (0.4 hectare). Significant differences (p < 0.05) were observed in pest numbers and damage symptoms of the different pest species for the various months of assessment. Populations of each pest species (mirids, stink bugs and the coreid bugs) and their associated damage in the various cocoa plots were significantly different (p < 0.05). The study showed that relying on the pest activity in one cocoa plantation to determine pest management activities in a nearby cocoa plot may not always lead to accurate and effective pest control. The need for pest surveillance and monitoring at the farm level as a basis to design effective Integrated Pest Management in cocoa production is discussed.

Mapping Cocoa and Assessing Deforestation Risk for the Cocoa Sector in Côte d’Ivoire and Ghana

This paper describes the methods for two data products aimed at addressing deforestation linked to cocoa production: the West Africa Cocoa Dataset, an aggregate database of cocoa plots mapped by 19 companies, and the Cocoa Deforestation Risk Assessment which estimates future deforestation risk.

Insecticidal and repellent activities of Azadirachta indica A. (Juss) oil against fifth instar larvae and adults of Sahlbergella singularis (Hemiptera:Miridae)

Sahlbergella singularis is one of the insects that causes the most damage to cocoa trees in Togo. The management of this pest is mainly based on chemical control, with its negative consequences for human health and the environment. In order to find an alternative to the use of synthetic pesticides, the insecticidal and repellent activities of neem oil were tested in vitro on fifth instar larvae and adults of S. singularis. Larvae were collected from a cocoa plot. The fifth instar larvae were separated from the other stages. Some of the larvae were reared in the laboratory until adult emergence. The concentrations of neem oil used were 0.5, 1, 1.5, 2 and 2.5 µl.ml-1. Insecticidal tests were carried out by spraying the solutions directly onto the insects. The repellency test was carried out using the preferential zone method on filter paper. The results showed an increasing mortality rate with increasing concentrations of neem oil for both fifth instar larvae and adults. The calculated LC50’s for larvae and adults were 0.89 and 0.98 µl.ml-1 respectively. Neem oil had a weak repellent effect on both fifth instar larvae and adults, with average repellency rates of 23.60% and 28.8% respectively. These results show that neem oil can be an alternative to the use of synthetic pesticides in the control of S. singularis.

Theobroma cacao L. agricultural soils with natural low and high cadmium (Cd) in Santander (Colombia), contain a persistent shared bacterial composition shaped by multiple soil variables and bacterial isolates highly resistant to Cd concentrations.

Heavy metals can be found in soil as natural components or as product of contaminations events; plants growing in soils are prone to bioaccumulate heavy metals on their biomass. Theobroma cacao L. can bioaccumulate cadmium (Cd) in the seed and could be in derived food products, it considered a human health risk; therefore, removal of Cd is desirable but not vet technically and economically feasible; only to avoid Cd in cocoa is by selecting lands plots exhibiting lower Cd concentrations in soils, imposing a serious limitation to farmers and regulators. The study of bacterial communities and isolation bacteria with tolerance and mechanisms to counteract the translocation of Cd to the parts of cocoa plant exhibits high relevance in Colombia economy and especially to companies producing chocolate and derivatives. Here, we explore bacterial communities associated with soils having relatively high natural Cd concentrations in a large agricultural cocoa plot located in the Santander region. We characterized the bacterial communities' compositions by amplicon 16S rRNA sequencing from metagenomics soil DNA and by culturing-based enumeration and isolation approaches. Culture-dependent techniques allowed the isolation of bacteria tolerant to Cd concentration, complement the information for Colombia, and expand the number of strains characterized with adaptive capacity against Cd with tolerance in a concentration of 120mg/L, which represents the first capacity for Exiguobacterium sp., Ralstonia sp., Serratia sp., Dermacoccus sp., Klebsiella sp., Lactococcus sp. and Staphylococcus sp. In addition to confirming that there is a greater diversity of Cd-tolerant bacteria present in soils of farms cultivated with cocoa in Colombia. As for the results of new generation sequencing, they revealed that, the alpha-diversity in bacterial composition, according to the ANOVA, there are statistically significant differences of the bacterial communities present in the samples. Regarding Pearson correlation analysis, it was found the Shannon Simpson indices, have a positive correlation against OM, C, pH, Mn, C.E.C.I., Ca, P and negatively correlated with S; respect to bacterial community structure, a principal component analysis, which revealed that independent of the concentration of Cd present in soil samples, separates them according to pH value. Phyla to high abundance relative in all samples were Proteobacteria, Acidobacteriota, Actinobacteriota, Verrucomicrobiota, Myxococcota, Chloroflexi, Plactomycetota, Bacteroidota, Gemmatimonadota, Nitrospirota, Firmicutes and NB1_J; the bacteria genera with higher relative abundance (>0.5%) Nitrospira, candidatus Udaeobacter, Haliangium, Cupriavidus, MND1, Bacillus, Kitasatospora, Niveibacterium, Acidothermus, Burkholderia, Acidibacter, Terrimonas, Gaiella, candidatus Solibacter, Kitasatospora, Sphingomonas, Streptomyces, this genus with a relationship with the Cd tolerance process. After it, redundancy analysis was performed between the variation of the bacterial communities identified by dependent and independent techniques and edaphic soil variables, where their positive correlation was found against K, OM, C, Ca, pH (p<0.01) and P, C.E.C.I (p<0.05). For soil samples, the bacterial genera that make up the core community were identified, which are present in all samples as Nitrospirasp., Cupriavidus sp., Burkholderia sp., Haliangium sp., candidatus Udaeobacter, MND1, Kitasatospora, Acidothermus, Acidibacter, Streptomyces, Gaiella, candidatus Solibacter and Terramonas; the genera identified has a different and fundamental role in ecosystem functioning. The combination of different approaches offers new clues regarding the assessment of bacterial communities in soils cultivated with cocoa in soils with elevated Cd content in Colombia, and the ecological role and interplay of soil components and bacterial communities that contribute to modulate the effect of bioaccumulation in products.

Parameter Estimation in a PDE Model for the Spatial Spread of Cocoa Black Pod Disease.

In this paper, we develop an epidemiological model with both environmental (primary infection from the environmental spores reservoir) and direct transmission (secondary infection from an infected host to a susceptible pod). This model simulates the spatiotemporal evolution of cocoa black pod disease caused by Phytophthora megakarya. Since reliable parameter estimation is a central issue for modeling realistic biological systems, we used a mechanistic-statistical approach to estimate model parameters from real observations of a specific cocoa plot. In addition, to refine numerical simulations of the pathosystem, data describing the shade intensity all over the plot were exploited and led to increased model predictions accuracy and also highlighted a higher number of infected pods located in areas of the plot with higher shading intensity. Recommendations in terms of promoting cocoa farming in systems with low shading intensity may be evident if these results are confirmed. Our results also highlight the importance of the environmental spore reservoir in black pod disease dynamics.

Tree diversity and composition in Mexican traditional smallholder cocoa agroforestry systems

The cultivation of cocoa is a commodity of great importance worldwide. In Mexico, cocoa is grown in Tabasco and Chiapas states in agroforestry systems since pre-Hispanic times, where cocoa is grown under the canopy of shade trees. Crops such as sugarcane and extensive livestock production have gradually reduced the area devoted to cocoa cultivation in the region. Yet, farmers keep small portions of the cocoa agroforestry systems to maintain the local floristic diversity. This practice seems to be a successful contribution to plant conservation. To determine the management practices used by farmers in the agroforestry cocoa systems and the diversity of products they harvest, a non-probabilistic sampling was carried out in 38 shade cocoa plots of 20 × 50 m each (19 in Tabasco and 19 in Chiapas). We counted and identified all trees with DBH ≥ 5 cm, recording their height. We estimated canopy cover at 20 points within each plot. Our results show no tree species richness differences between states, but there were differences at the municipality level; Pichucalco (Chiapas) had the highest tree species richness. Considering all tree species, there was a higher tree density in Tabasco than in Chiapas. Regarding only cocoa trees, there was also a higher abundance in Tabasco than in Chiapas. In both cases, farmers obtain a wide variety of products for self-consumption and local market sale from their cocoa agroforestry systems (e.g., timber, fruit, and grains). The wide floristic diversity in these agroecosystems aids native plant species conservation and could favor the increase of agroforestry plantations associated with cocoa cultivation.

Evaluation of Adaptation and Yield Stability of Cocoa Progenies in Marginal Conditions: Results from an on Farm Cocoa Trial Set up in a Forest–Savannah Transition Area in Cameroon

Cocoa is an important crop in Cameroon, where it is cultivated in different areas, including marginal areas, characterized by a rather low level of annual rainfall and marked dry seasons. In order to release cocoa varieties with a good level of adaptation to these marginal conditions, nine full-sib progenies, already released to farmers in other producing areas of the country, were assessed on twelve on farm cocoa plots, set up in 2006, in Mbam et Inoubou county, which is a forest–savannah transition zone. The traits assessed were mortality rate, yield and yield stability. Mortality rate and yield vary widely among trial plots and among progenies. Four out of the nine assessed progenies present a yield level significantly higher than the five others. The lowest level of yield stability (estimated by the contribution to total ecovalence) was observed in both the highest and the lowest yielding progenies. Recommendation for the large-scale release of these progenies to farmers of the county, and to other cocoa producing forest–savannah transition areas, are made, based on the results obtained from this study.

Estructura y carbono específico en una cronosecuencia de sistemas agroforestales de Teobroma cacao L. en Tabasco, México

Ante el impacto que representa el cambio de uso de suelo en la pérdida de biodiversidad y deterioro del medio ambiente, los sistemas agroforestales de cacao de sombra son una alternativa para la conservación de biodiversidad y almacén de carbono. El objetivo de este trabajo fue conocer el efecto de la edad de los sistemas agroforestales de cacao en la diversidad arbórea y almacenes de carbono de su vegetación de sombra. Se compararon 258 parcelas distribuidas en once sistemas agroforestales entre 10 años y 70 años, totalizando 7.87 ha. Dentro de cada parcela se midió el diámetro normal (DN) y altura total de todos los árboles &gt;5 cm (DN) para estimar su biomasa aérea con una ecuación general y otra específica, y conocer la discrepancia de ambos métodos. Los sistemas agroforestales de 70 años presentaron en promedio más especies arbóreas por hectárea (23), índice de diversidad Shannon (2.0) y almacén de carbono (75 Mg ha-1) que los de 10 años (p &lt; 0.01; 10 Mg ha-1, 1.1 Mg ha-1 y 36 Mg ha-1; respectivamente). La ecuación alométrica específica estimó 27.7% (p = 0.05) más biomasa aérea que la ecuación general, por lo que se considera de mayor precisión para estos sistemas agroforestales en particular, y se recomienda su uso para estos tipos de vegetación. Se concluye que, particularmente para México, conservar sistemas agroforestales de cacao de edad madura contribuye a la conservación de la biodiversidad arbórea y almacenes de carbono de la vegetación tropical, asemejando relictos de la vegetación original.

Differences in Leaf Area, Trichome Density, and Xylem Structure between the Two Types of Theobroma cacao L. Cultivation: With or without Shade Plants

This study aimed to analyze the structure and density of non-glandular trichomes and the area of cocoa leaves, and the differences of xylem vessel structures on various shade tree composition. The leaf area and length, and trichomes were observed. The xylem vessel structure was observed from the root system. The result showed the area of cocoa plots without shade tree has more varied leaves size, in which upper canopy was smaller than the bottom. The area with various shade had a relatively equal size between the upper and the lower of the canopy. The three stellate-shaped non-glandular trichomes were found on the leaf venations only with the density in two plots increased with time. The xylem width area to the whole root width area ratio (k) in various shade trees was lower (k = 0.641) than that of without shade trees (k = 0.718). The higher k values indicated xylem structure without the shade tree had more xylem cells, and the pores was smaller compared to the plot with various shade trees.

Cocoa-based agroforestry system dynamics and trends in the Akongo subregion of central Cameroon

Cocoa is a major crop and income source for most farmers and rural households in the Centre, South and South-West regions of Cameroon, where cocoa is generally produced in agroforestry systems. In this country, cocoa-based agroforestry systems (CBAFS) are undergoing multiple changes alongside the rapid changes underway in the natural, economic and socio-political conditions. This study—carried out in the Akongo subregion in central Cameroon—was designed to gain insight into the CBAFS trends and dynamics in the light of those multiple changes. This semi-structured socioeconomic survey involved interviews and direct observations at plot, farm, household and village scales. Overall, forty cocoa growers from ten villages were interviewed and then fifteen cocoa plots were characterized on the basis of the survey findings. They revealed that cocoa was the major crop in this study area, with cocoa plantations occupying three quarters of the total farming area. Three types of CBAFS were identified, which differed according to their vegetation structure, management practices and age of the plantations. Dynamics affecting the structural characteristics and the spatial extension of these systems emerged and were intimately linked to the dynamics of the cocoa farmer population in relation to their context.

Effect of Proper Management of Cocoa Plants on the Occurrence of Swollen Shoot Disease in Kipiri - Côte d'Ivoire

This study aimed to evaluate the relationship between plot maintenance level and the prevalence of Cocoa swollen shoot disease in Kipiri (Department of Soubré) in Côte d'Ivoire. Indeed, the strong pressure of Swollen shoot disease in this department causes enormous damage in cocoa plots.The study design is a prospective survey in peasant cocoa plots between 2014 and 2016.&#x0D; The data were collected using the Land Degradation Surface Framework (LDSF). The LDSF device is a sentinel site of 10 Km × 10 Km. The site is divided into 16 Clusters of 2.5 Km × 2.5 Km with 10 plots by cluster. In the case of our study, surveys were carried out on 108 plots carrying cocoa trees within a radius of 50 m around each test plot. The data collected included areas of Cocoa Swollen Shoot Virus (CSSV) outbreaks, the cocoa plot maintenance level and CSSV status like ‘Absence’ or ‘Presence’ in plots observed. CSSV prevalence was deduced from CSSV outbreaks areas of each sampling plot, allowing realization of disease map. The relationship between the level of plot maintenance and the prevalence of CSSV was assessed by using the analysis of variance test (Anova-one-way).&#x0D; The results of Swollen shoot disease’s distribution showed that the Kipiri site had a CSSV prevalence around 50%.These results demonstrated that plots maintenance level has a strong influence on the prevalence of Swollen shoot disease (p =0.00 &lt; 0.05).&#x0D; At the end of this study, it appears that plots maintenance level is a key factor in the rapid spread of the Swollen shoot epidemic in Kipiri site. Cocoa producers would therefore be recommended to regularly maintain their plantations by eliminating the reservoirs of Cocoa Swollen Shoot Virus.

Evaluation of the Epidemiological Factors Responsible for the Appearance of Phytophthora Palmivora and Phytophthora Megakarya, Causal Agent of Black Pods Disease in the Department of Méagui, Southwestern Côte D'ivoire

The cocoa black pod disease is caused by a fungus Phytophthora sp, which comprises two main species (Phytophthora palmivora and Phytophthora megakarya) commonly found in Ivorian cocoa plots and which cause significant damage. Despite numerous studies, this disease continues to spread and even more so Phytophthora megakarya, which did not exist in Côte d'Ivoire, is beginning to spread significantly. This study focused on the evaluation of the epidemiological factors responsible for the progression of Phytophthora megakarya and Phytophthora palmivora in the Department of Méagui, southwestern Cote d'Ivoire. To this end, a prospective survey was conducted in three cocoa plots in Méagui, which collected epidemiological data on

Effect of Municipal Solid Waste Compost on Soil Chemical Properties and Growth Performance of Cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.) Seedlings at the Nursery in Ghana

Aims: Availability of nutrients-rich topsoil for nursing cocoa seedlings is becoming limited and poor growth of cocoa seedlings in the nurseries has been ascribed to the use of unsuitable potting media. Experiments were conducted to investigate the suitability of compost in improving soil chemical properties and boost the growth of cocoa seedlings at the nursery.&#x0D; Study Design: The experiment was laid out in a Completely Randomized Design (CRD) with four replications.&#x0D; Place and Duration of Study: The experiment was carried out at the main nursery of Cocoa Research Institute of Ghana, New Tafo-Akim, between September, 2014 and June 2015.&#x0D; Methodology: Polybags were filled with soil obtained from an old cocoa plot (K6O2) at Cocoa Research Institute of Ghana. The soil has been classified as Rhodic-Lixic Ferrasol. Three soil: compost mixtures treatments, that is, 90:10, 80:20 and 70:30% w/w were tested. A Standard foliar fertilizer and unamended soil were included as treated and untreated controls. Seedlings were raised from mixed hybrid cocoa and assessed at bi-monthly intervals for six months for growth. Pre and post treatments soil analyses were carried out using standard laboratory procedures.&#x0D; Results: Initial soil analyses showed that OC (1.18%), Ca (5.60 cmol kg-1), P (14.23 mg kg-1) and pH (5.63) were below the critical values required for good cocoa growth. The 70:30 soil: compost treatment produced significantly (P = .05) tallest plant (41.9 cm) with the unamended control the shortest (30.7 cm) at the end of the study. Residual pH (6.98), OC (2.30%), P (14.23 mg kg-1) and Ca (13.02 cmol kg-1) were significantly (P = .05) higher under the same treatment compared to the unamended control; pH (5.36), OC (1.04%), P (11.65 mg kg-1) and Ca (5.60 cmol kg-1).&#x0D; Conclusion: Less fertile soils could be improved with the addition of Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) compost for raising good quality cocoa seedlings at the nursery in Ghana.

INCIDENCE DYNAMIC OF POD ROT DISEASE OF COCOA CLONES IN LAMPUNG, INDONESIA

Incidence dynamic of pod rot disease of cocoa clones in Lampung, Indonesia. The declining of production and productivity of cocoa in Indonesia might due to pests and diseases attacks and planting unselected clones. Dynamic of pod rot incidence was important to plan pest controlling. To study dynamic incidence of some cocoa clones, a research was conducting in Pesawaran District, a centre of cocoa production in Lampung. A farmer cocoa plot under agro-forestry system was selected which had been upgrading in 2014 by pruning and side-grafting with national clones including Sul 1, MCC 1, MCC 2, ICCRI 7 and selected local clone named T1, T2, and T3. The results showed that pod rot incidence occurred along the year of observation. For immature pod, pod rot incidence was dynamic and varied among months and clones. There was high pod rot incidence every months for particular clone. National clone Sul1 and local clone T3 exhibited more tolerant to pod rot disease than other clones. Clones Sul1 and T3 also produced more pod than others. High incidence of pod rot occurred on fruit stage of cherelle (incidence 38.7%) and small pod (incidence 18.8%) that well known as cherelle wilt symptom.

Is kola Tree the Enemy of Cocoa? A Critical Analysis of Agroforestry Recommendations Made to Ivorian Cocoa Farmers

Cocoa production in Cote d’Ivoire (40% of the world market) has tripled in the past 35 years even as the country’s forests are depleted. The chocolate industry, concerned about production so concentrated in one country and its dependence on the forest, is trying to convince smallholders to obtain ‘cocoa certification.’ This scheme, while couched in environmental terms, aims to increase cocoa yields and recommends the removal of kola trees from cocoa plots. This advice, ultimately largely ignored by the cocoa farmers, reflects a lack of understanding of farmer practices and kola tree’s economic, social, and cultural role. The chocolate industry reveals its vision for agroforestry as limited to production and demonstrates an unwillingness to participate in the smallholder-driven innovation system that is transforming Ivorian cocoa cultivation.

Solanecio biafrae: An underutilized nutraceutically-important african indigenous vegetable

Solanecio biafrae (Olive and Hierne) C. Jeffrey (1986) (Family: Asteraceae), has synonyms Senecio biafrae Olive and Hierne (1877) and Crassocephalum biafrae (Olive and Hierne) S. Moore (1912). It is a perennial standent, underutilized African indigenous medicinal vegetable. It was first reported and published in Flora of Tropical Africa. Its common names varied from Gnanvule in Cote d’Ivoire to Worowo/bologi in Nigeria. It has alternate, simple, succulent, petiolated, and exauriculate leaves. Its propagation is vegetative by rooting of cuttings. However, there is no report on its propagation by seed. It is ubiquitous in cocoa plots in Nigeria, especially southwest; due to deliberate protection for economic revenue, but this has little‑uncoordinated cultivation indication. These deliberately protected few are exposed to contamination by a chemical used for protecting cocoa plants. It is highly nutritive and rich in protein. It is also medicinally important as a galactagogue and for treatment of diabetes, high blood pressure, and infertility. It has biological activity against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli. It also has traditional and cultural claims for initiation and rituals. Personal interviews and search of the available literature on S. biafrae in electronic peer‑reviewed English journals using scientific databases such as Google Scholar, Science Direct, PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science was employed.

Evaluación de la rentabilidad económica y captura de carbono en plantaciones de cacao en el plan Chontalpa, Tabasco

En este estudio se evalúo la rentabilidad económica y la captura de Carbono del sistema agroforestal cacao entre tres parcelas de diferentes edades. Se aplico un cuestionario estructurado a 36 productores pertenecientes al poblado C-34 de Huimanguillo, Tabasco. Se evaluaron los egresos e ingresos en términos monetarios de la plantación del cacao. Para la determinación de la captura de Carbono se estudiaron nueve sitios con superficie de tres hectáreas cada uno pertenecientes al poblado C-34 y un sitio ubicado en el Km-21 del campo experimental del Colegio de Postgraduados. Para la cuantificación de Carbono, se utilizo la metodología rápida para la estimación y monitoreo de captura de carbono propuesta por Rendón y Soto, 2007. Para el análisis estadístico se utilizo un análisis ANOVA y una prueba Tukey Kramer. La plantación de cacao de 20 años obtuvo la mayor utilidad con $ 7 653 ± $ 3 921, mientras que la plantación de cacao de 30 años obtuvo la menor utilidad promedio con $ 5 899 ± $ 3 420. El análisis estadístico demostró que no hubo diferencias estadísticas significativas en relación al Carbono capturado en las parcelas evaluadas; Sin embargo, en las plantaciones de cacao de 15 años de edad se obtuvo un valor promedio 100.6 ± 110.5 t/C/ha-1 mientras que en las de 20 años se obtuvo 49.9 ± 14 t/C/ha-1.

A bridge too far? The influence of socio-cultural values on the adaptation responses of smallholders to a devastating pest outbreak in cocoa

The influence of socio-cultural factors on the adaptive capacity, resilience and trade-offs in decision-making of households and communities is receiving growing scholarly attention. In many partly transformed societies, where the market economy is not well developed, livelihood practices are heavily structured by kinship and indigenous social and economic values. Farm investment decisions and incentives to produce agricultural commodities are shaped by a host of considerations in addition to market imperatives like profit. In one such partly transformed society in East New Britain Province, Papua New Guinea, we examine the adaptation decisions of smallholders in response to the drastic drop of yield in their cocoa plots caused by the sudden outbreak of Cocoa Pod Borer. To explain why the impact of the pest has been so great we examine the interconnections between household responses, the local socio-cultural and economic context of smallholder commodity crop production and the wider institutional environment in which household choices and decisions are made. We argue that the significant lifestyle changes and labour intensive farming methods required for the effective control of Cocoa Pod Borer are incompatible with existing smallholder farming systems, values and livelihoods. To adopt a high input cropping system requires more than a technical fix and some training; it also requires abandoning a ‘way of life’ that provides status, identity and a moral order, and which is therefore highly resistant to change. The paper highlights the enduring influence and significance of local, culturally-specific beliefs and socio-economic values and their influence on how individuals and communities make adaptation decisions.