Virginia Coast Research Articles

Methods to compare sites concerning a category’s change during various time intervals

ABSTRACT This paper presents new methods to analyze a category’s change through a time series of maps, even when the time intervals have inconsistent durations. The methods include an option to facilitate comparison among sites by expressing results as an annual percentage of each site’s unified size. A site’s unified size is the union of where the category exists at any of the site’s time points. The methods also specify gross losses, gross gains, eight trajectories, and three components: Quantity, Exchange, and Alternation. The illustrative application compares maps of the marsh category for three Long-Term Ecological Research sites: Plum Island Ecosystems (PIE), Georgia Coastal Ecosystems (GCE), and the Virginia Coast Reserve (VCR). The application analyzes marsh’s changes during two time intervals that have unequal durations within each site’s distinct temporal extent. Results show that PIE has the fastest change during each site’s temporal extent. Gross change is more than double the quantity change for all sites. Exchange accounts for most of the change in GCE, while Alternation accounts for most of the change in PIE and VCR. The methods provide more information than popular methods that quantify annual net change. Our timeseriesTrajectories R package performs the analysis and is available for free at https://github.com/bilintoh/timeseriesTrajectories.

Estimating the economic vulnerability of 2020–2099 storm flooding with sea level rise on Coastal Virginia

Estimating the economic impact of flooding is an essential element of flood risk management. Policy interventions to mitigate the impact of flooding must be balanced against the financial and economic costs of flooding. Using projections of sea level rise for 2040, 2060, and 2080 and estimates of flooding damage that are equaled or exceeded 10-, 50-, 100-, and 500-year period, we investigate the financial costs of flooding across eight planning districts in Coastal Virginia. We briefly discuss the methodology to estimate the average annualized loss (AAL) given discrete events and likelihoods and how these AALs flow into the estimation of the net present value of flooding in Coastal Virginia. The Hampton Roads metropolitan area accounts for approximately 80.7% of estimated nominal losses currently, rising to 88.1% by 2080 due to sea level rise. This vulnerability is linked to poorly planned development, population growth, ground subsidence, and economic inequities. The present value of unmitigated flooding ranges from $20.0 billion to $58.7 billion in 2021 dollars, depending on the discount rate. Discounted economic impacts for unmitigated sea level rise could reach $82.9 billion for Coastal Virginia this century. The concentration of costs in Hampton Roads, which produces 20% of Virginia's GDP, underscores the need for targeted economic and security policies.

Multi-year soil response to conservation management in the Virginia Coastal Plain

In the coastal plain region of the United States, conservation agriculture practices are being implemented to improve soil health, minimize environmental impacts, and improve farm profitability. Common practices include cover cropping and conservation tillage using strip tillage, minimal tillage, or no tillage. However, the soil response to specific combinations of conservation tillage and cover crop rotations remains poorly quantified. The objective of this research was to evaluate changes in soil properties from different combinations of conservation management. Four tillage systems – conventional, strip, minimal, and no tillage – and three winter cover rotations – fallow, winter cash crop, and high-biomass cover crop – were tested in a split-plot design. Bulk density, depth to a root-restrictive layer, soil carbon concentration, soil carbon stock, field-saturated hydraulic conductivity, and yield were measured over a seven-year period. Bulk density and field-saturated hydraulic conductivity showed greater temporal variation in the strip tillage and conventional tillage practices. Depth to root-restrictive layer was consistently highest in the strip and minimal tillage treatments, which both included implements designed to alleviate subsoil compaction. Treatments that combined conservation tillage with a winter cover (i.e., cash crops or high-biomass cover crops) had greater increases in soil carbon concentrations and carbon stock. Summer cash crop yield was significantly increased following the high-biomass cover crop treatment in 2 out of the 7 years. Altogether, soil carbon showed a more consistent response to conservation management than the other soil properties, which tended to show greater variability based on the time since disturbance (e.g., tillage). Conservation management practices therefore need to be consistently applied for multiple years in order to improve soil properties such as bulk density and saturated hydraulic conductivity.

Modeling the interaction of vegetation and sea level rise on barrier island evolution.

Barrier islands provide a first line of defense against ocean flooding and storm surge. Biogeomorphic interactions are recognized as important in coastal system processes, but current barrier island models are primarily dominated by physical processes. Recent research has demonstrated different biogeomorphic states that influence response to sea level rise and other disturbance. Building on this understanding, we present a cellular model utilizing biotic and abiotic processes and their interactions for barrier island evolution. Using the literature and field derived parameters, we model barrier island evolution and compare to three decades of change for Smith Island, a Virginia Coast Reserve barrier island. We conduct simulations that show the impact of biogeomorphic states on island migration under different sea level rise scenarios. We find that migration is highest in areas with low topography and light vegetation cover (i.e. disturbance reinforcing) compared to areas with greater topographic complexity and high cover of woody vegetation i.e. disturbance resisting). This study demonstrates the importance of biogeomorphic interactions for barrier island evolution with sea level rise and will aid future predictions for these important ecosystems with climate change.

Eelgrass meadow response to heat stress. II. Impacts of ocean warming and marine heatwaves measured by novel metrics

In June 2015, a marine heatwave triggered a severe eelgrass Zostera marina die-off event at the Virginia Coast Reserve (USA), followed by a slow and spatially heterogeneous recovery. We investigated the effects of heat stress on seagrass loss and recovery. Using hourly summer water temperature measurements from 2016-2020, we developed a novel approach to quantifying the stress of ocean warming on seagrass meadows. We defined 2 metrics: cumulative heat stress (as heating degree-hours, HDHs) and heat stress relief (as cooling degree-hours, CDHs), relative to a 28.6°C eelgrass ecosystem thermal tolerance threshold previously determined at this site from aquatic eddy covariance measurements. These metrics were compared to spatiotemporal patterns of summertime eelgrass shoot density and length. We found that the healthiest parts of the meadow benefited from greater heat stress relief (2-3×) due to tidal cooling (inputs of cooler ocean water through ocean inlets) during warm periods, resulting in ~65% higher shoot densities compared to the center of the meadow, which experienced higher heat stress (2×) and less relief. We also calculated the amount of heat stress preceding the eelgrass die-off in summer 2015, and found that this event was triggered by a cumulative heat stress of ~100-200°C-hours during the peak growing season. Sulfur isotope analyses of eelgrass leaves and sediment also suggested that sulfide toxicity likely contributed to eelgrass decline. Overall, our metrics incorporate physiological heat tolerances with the duration and intensity of heat stress and relief, and thus lay the groundwork for forecasting seagrass meadow vulnerability and resilience to future warming oceans.

Co-phylogeographic structure in a disease-causing parasite and its oyster host.

With the increasing affordability of next-generation sequencing technologies, genotype-by-sequencing has become a cost-effective tool for ecologists and conservation biologists to describe a species' evolutionary history. For host–parasite interactions, genotype-by-sequencing can allow the simultaneous examination of host and parasite genomes and can yield insight into co-evolutionary processes. The eastern oyster, Crassostrea virginica, is among the most important aquacultured species in the United States. Natural and farmed oyster populations can be heavily impacted by ‘dermo’ disease caused by an alveolate protist, Perkinsus marinus. Here, we used restricted site-associated DNA sequencing (RADseq) to simultaneously examine spatial population genetic structure of host and parasite. We analysed 393 single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) for P. marinus and 52,100 SNPs for C. virginica from 36 individual oysters from the Gulf of Mexico (GOM) and mid-Atlantic coastline. All analyses revealed statistically significant genetic differentiation between the GOM and mid-Atlantic coast populations for both C. virginica and P. marinus, and genetic divergence between Chesapeake Bay and the outer coast of Virginia for C. virginica, but not for P. marinus. A co-phylogenetic analysis confirmed significant coupled evolutionary change between host and parasite across large spatial scales. The strong genetic divergence between marine basins raises the possibility that oysters from either basin would not be well adapted to parasite genotypes and phenotypes from the other, which would argue for caution with regard to both oyster and parasite transfers between the Atlantic and GOM regions. More broadly, our results demonstrate the potential of RADseq to describe spatial patterns of genetic divergence consistent with coupled evolution.

Analysis of bubble curtain effectiveness in the coastal Virginia offshore wind turbine installation

The Coastal Virginia Offshore Wind (CVOW) consists of two turbines roughly 40 km off the coast of Virginia Beach, Virginia. Water- and seabed-borne acoustic signals from impact pile driving at CVOW were recorded during the installation of these turbines in May 2020. In-water pressure signals were measured using two vertical line arrays (VLAs) at ranges of 3 km and 7.5 km. The water depth at the wind turbines and both VLAs was about 26 m. During installation, one of the piles utilized a double bubble curtain during construction while the other pile did not. Bubble curtains are used to reduce the acoustic impacts of pile driving by creating a barrier of bubbles around the source. We found that the bubble curtains were most effective at longer ranges and at frequencies above 200 Hz. Normal modes are an efficient representation of the acoustic field in this relatively range-independent shallow water environment. The amplitudes of acoustic modes at several frequencies were used to analyze the effectiveness of bubble curtains. Energy propagating in the seabed was also measured by an array of geophones and was found to be unattenuated by the bubble screens.

Impact of invasive Carex kobomugi on the native dune community in a US mid-Atlantic coastal system

Dunes provide numerous ecosystem services including habitat for flora and fauna, coastal protection through mitigation of wind and wave energy, and as a barrier to storm flooding. Dune vegetation that inhabits these systems plays a vital role in building dunes and resisting erosion. In the United States, the Virginia coast is a transitional temperature zone for several dominant dune grasses, where the northern species, Ammophila breviligulata (C3) and the southern species, Uniola paniculata and Panicum amarum (both C4) overlap. At Back Bay National Wildlife Refuge (NWR), Virginia, warming temperatures are resulting in native species range shifts altering biotic interactions. Additionally, the invasive sedge, Carex kobomugi (C3) has become more prevalent in the region with unknown effects on the landscape. To understand the impact of Carex on the native plant community, we quantified species distribution and morphological traits of three dominant native species, A. breviligulata, Panicum, and Uniola as well as invasive Carex. We found that Carex was most dominant and exhibited similar individual traits when compared to native species. The suite of plant traits was unique in Carex, with less variation than in native species allowing for rapid nutrient acquisition and growth. These traits, combined with species distribution data suggest that Carex may limit Ammophila abundance. Similarly, presence of Carex had a negative effect on Panicum growth, but no discernible effect on Uniola. Success of Carex at Back Bay NWR may be indicative of the future spread of the species due to above and belowground morphological traits, which may give the invasive an advantage with climate warming.

Simulation of Flood-Induced Human Migration at the Municipal Scale: A Stochastic Agent-Based Model of Relocation Response to Coastal Flooding

Human migration triggered by flooding will create sociodemographic, economic, and cultural challenges in coastal communities, and adaptation to these challenges will primarily occur at the municipal level. However, existing migration models at larger spatial scales do not necessarily capture relevant social responses to flooding at the local and municipal levels. Furthermore, projecting migration dynamics into the future becomes difficult due to uncertainties in human–environment interactions, particularly when historic observations are used for model calibration. This study proposes a stochastic agent-based model (ABM) designed for the long-term projection of municipal-scale migration due to repeated flood events. A baseline model is demonstrated initially, capable of using stochastic bottom-up decision rules to replicate county-level population. This approach is then combined with physical flood-exposure data to simulate how population projections diverge under different flooding assumptions. The methodology is applied to a study area comprising 16 counties in coastal Virginia and Maryland, U.S., and include rural areas which are often overlooked in adaptation research. The results show that incorporating flood impacts results in divergent population growth patterns in both urban and rural locations, demonstrating potential municipal-level migration response to coastal flooding.

Movement patterns of foraging common terns (Sterna hirundo) breeding in an urban environment in coastal Virginia.

Nesting colonial seabirds are prime examples of central-place foragers, animals that must return to a central location (e.g., a breeding colony) after each bout of foraging. They must balance the costs and benefits of foraging with the need to return to their colonies frequently to form pair bonds during courtship, incubate, provision mates and offspring, and protect and rear young. For some populations, the loss and degradation of suitable breeding habitat due to human activities have necessitated the construction of new breeding sites and/or the restoration of previously occupied sites. South Island, which is part of the Hampton Roads Bridge-Tunnel (HRBT) complex in the Commonwealth of Virginia, U.S.A., is a human-created island that supported Virginia's largest mixed species seabird colony until 2020, when the expansion of the HRBT began and when all nesting seabirds were permanently excluded from the site. We studied the movement patterns of foraging common terns (Sterna hirundo) to determine how travel to and around foraging sites related to their colony location and to inform the siting and construction of a new breeding island. We tracked 18 individual common terns from 07 June to 29 June 2018, and we used a hidden Markov model to assign behavioral states and investigate common tern movements around the HRBT. Common terns spent more than half their time in the colony (58%), followed by time devoted to foraging (22%), and the remainder of their time was spent on outbound (15%) and inbound (5%) transit. Terns traveled as far as 98km from the colony, but on average foraged relatively close to South Island (13.6 ± 0.3km, mean ± 1 SD). Individuals tended to forage in the same locations, but there was variation among individuals. Flying to foraging sites uses energy during the already energetically costly breeding season, thus managers should prioritize placing a new colony site in a location that minimizes the distance traveled to the foraging locations frequented by the South Island birds while accounting for other life-history characteristics. These findings could help in the design and construction of new breeding sites or the restoration of current sites for other, related species, particularly for which these data do not exist.

Temperature threshold for seagrass (Zostera marina) ecosystem production derived from in situ aquatic eddy covariance measurements

As seagrass meadows are increasingly threatened by warming oceans and extreme heating events, it is critical that we enhance our understanding of their ecosystem response to heat stress. This study relied on our extensive database of hourly eelgrass Zostera marina ecosystem metabolism to determine, for the first time, the temperature stress threshold (Tth) of Z. marina meadows under naturally varying in situ conditions. Eelgrass ecosystem metabolism was measured using the aquatic eddy covariance technique in a 20 km2 meadow at the Virginia Coast Reserve (USA). We constructed and fitted a non-linear multivariate model to identify 28.6°C as the threshold above which substantial negative effects on net photosynthesis occur. On average, daytime oxygen fluxes decreased by 50% on afternoons when Tth was exceeded, which shifted daily net ecosystem metabolism from metabolic balance to net heterotrophy and therefore a loss in carbon. This study highlights the vulnerability of eelgrass meadows to future warming projections.

Evaluating Flow Distribution in a Multiaquifer Recharge Well Using an In Situ Flowmeter.

Quantifying the flow rate distribution in a multiple-screen recharge well is relevant to understanding groundwater flow and solute transport behavior in managed aquifer recharge (MAR) operations. In this study, an impeller flowmeter was deployed to measure flow rate distribution in a multiple-screen MAR well under both recharge and pumping conditions screened in the multiple-strata of the Virginia Coastal Plain aquifer system. Preferential flow distribution in the well was observed through the uppermost screens during recharge while flow distribution was more evenly distributed along all screens under pumping conditions. Analysis of flow along individual screens also indicates preferential flow to the upper part of the screen during both recharge and pumping. Comparison of flowmeter results under both recharge and pumping conditions to previous site-specific measurements suggests that the distribution of flow may vary with time, depending on well screen condition and well rehabilitation efforts, and should be monitored over the duration of an MAR project. These results have implications for groundwater quality given that flow distribution in a multiscreen recharge well has profound impact on travel time and on transport modeling if flow is assumed to be steady and consistent under a range of operational conditions.

Mapping the tidal marshes of coastal Virginia: a hierarchical transfer learning approach

ABSTRACT Coastal wetlands, especially tidal marshes, play a crucial role in supporting ecosystems and slowing shoreline erosion. Accurate and cost-effective identification and classification of various marsh types, such as high and low marshes, are important for effective coastal management and conservation endeavors. However, mapping tidal marshes is challenging due to heterogeneous coastal vegetation and dynamic tidal influences. In this study, we employ a deep learning segmentation model to automate the identification and classification of tidal marsh communities in coastal Virginia, USA, using seasonal, publicly available satellite and aerial images. This study leverages the combined capabilities of Sentinel-2 and National Agriculture Imagery Program (NAIP) imagery and a UNet architecture to accurately classify tidal marsh communities. We illustrate that by leveraging features learned from data abundant regions and small quantities of high-quality training data collected from the target region, an accuracy as high as 88% can be achieved in the classification of marsh types, specifically high marsh and low marsh, at a spatial resolution of 0.6 m. This study contributes to the field of marsh mapping by highlighting the potential of combining multispectral satellite imagery and deep learning for accurate and efficient marsh type classification.

Delayed Diagnoses in Patients With Dizziness in the US Commonwealth of Virginia and the Tidewater Region.

In a region of approximately 1.7 million people (Tidewater, coastal Virginia), identify secondary diagnoses in persons with dizziness. This cross-sectional study utilizing TriNetX included individuals in the region of interest diagnosed with dizziness between 2010 and 2020. Subsequent diagnoses of vestibular disease or medical conditions possibly associated with dizziness in the same subjects were catalogued. During the study period, 31,670 subjects were identified with diagnoses of dizziness as a symptom; 18,390 subjects were subsequently given a dizziness-related nonvestibular diagnosis, and 930 were given a subsequent vestibular disease diagnosis. The proportion of subjects diagnosed with vestibular disease (3%) after the dizziness diagnosis is far below expected norms (25%-34%) in the general population. There were greater proportions of delayed diagnoses of labyrinth dysfunction (odds ratio [OR], 4.8; P < 0.0001), superior semicircular canal dehiscence (OR, 3.1; P = 0.0023), otolith disease (OR, 3.1; P = 0.0023), among others, and a decreased proportion of delayed diagnosis of benign paroxysmal positional vertigo (OR, 0.56; P < 0.0001). The discrepancy between expected and observed prevalence in our region indicates that vestibular disease is likely underdiagnosed.

Seeing Is Believing: The Role of Place in Mitigating Partisan Attitudes Toward the Environment

Over the past decade the partisan divide over environmental issues has widened significantly. Although attitudes toward climate change and other environmental policy issues have become highly polarized, it is possible that personal geography may moderate partisan attitudes. This study considers whether residing in coastal Virginia influences attitudes on environmental issues among Virginians. To test this question, we survey Virginia registered voters on a range of coastal environmental issues and consider whether place of residence has an effect on these attitudes when accounting for other factors including partisanship. We find a significant relationship between place of residence and a wide range of environmental issue attitudes, though the impact of partisanship is moderated in only limited cases. This research builds on the policy process literature concerning individual proximity to policy problems, place-attachment, and the relationship between partisanship and state environmental policy attitudes.

A Class Project for Investigating Possible Future Local Effects of Global Climate Change through Student Analysis of Fossil Faunas

A common question posed to environmental scientists by nonscientists, particularly policymakers, is the following: In a world that is globally warmer, what will the new climate be like in specific geographical regions? This question has been and continues to be addressed by computer modeling, a technique that is out of reach for vast majority of students. However, an alternate approach to investigating this issue exists that is more practical for students. Past climates can be inferred for specific regions from fossils, utilizing climate tolerances of related modern organisms. When these inferred past climates correspond to periods of the Earth’s history where levels of carbon dioxide were as high or higher than today, these data can be used to extrapolate possible future local climates in a globally warmer world. The last Pleistocene interglacial period (known as the Eemian), which occurred approximately 120,000 years ago, is an ideal time period for studies of this kind for the following reasons. First, carbon dioxide levels were elevated at this time to levels approximating modern global conditions, and the world was warmer as evidenced by a much higher sea level than exists today. Secondly, most Eemian-age animals (especially mollusks) still exist, have known climate tolerances, and are relatively common as fossils. Students examining fossil mollusk faunas have applied this methodology to infer the Eemian climates of South Florida and coastal Virginia and found unexpectedly that for both regions the Eemian climate did not greatly differ from the modern one. The methodology described here can be used to address other important questions and puts such authentic and potentially valuable scientific research within practical reach of student scientists.

Fruit Quality of Several Strawberry Cultivars during the Harvest Season under High Tunnel and Open Field Environments

Parameters such as titratable acids (TA), total soluble solids (TSS), and their ratio (TSS/TA) are critical in determining strawberry fruit quality and the value of new cultivars. Ten strawberry cultivars were evaluated in two environments (open field and high tunnel) in the city of Virginia Beach. The objective was to evaluate the fruit quality characteristics (total soluble solids, titratable acidity TA, and total anthocyanin content) of newer strawberry cultivars grown in the annual hill plasticulture systems in coastal Virginia climatic conditions. Another objective was to measure the correlation between TA and a new digital meter (pocket acidity meter; PAM). Fruits were harvested weekly and TSS was measured using a refractometer. Acidity was measured using the pocket acidity meter and titratable acidity by a single sample titrimeter. Genetics significantly affected total anthocyanin content, TSS, TA, and acidity. The effect of the environments (high tunnel and open field) was not significant on TSS but significant on total anthocyanin content, TA, and acidity. “Flavorfest” had the highest and “Sweet Ann” the lowest anthocyanin content, TSS, and TA among the cultivars. The acidity (PAM data) showed a different level of correlation than TA, with a higher correlation for the open field than the high tunnel. On average, when outliers were removed, there was a regression of TA = 2.22(PAM) + 0.49 between the two data sets, with R2 = 0.47.

A novel subsurface sediment plate method for quantifying sediment accumulation and erosion in seagrass meadows

Sediment dynamics in seagrass meadows are key determinants of carbon sequestration and storage, surface elevation, and resilience and recovery from disturbance. However, current methods for measuring sediment accumulation are limited. For example, 210Pb dating, the most popular tool for quantifying sediment accretion rates over decadal timescales, relies on assumptions often at odds with seagrass meadows. Here, we have developed a novel subsurface sediment plate method to detect changes in sediment accumulation and erosion in real time that: 1) is affordable and simple to implement, 2) can quantify short-term (weeks to months) sediment dynamics of accumulation and erosion, 3) is non-destructive and minimizes impacts to surface-level processes, and 4) can quantify long-term (years) net sediment accumulation rates. We deployed subsurface sediment plates at two sites within a 20 km2 seagrass meadow in the Virginia Coast Reserve Long-Term Ecological Research site, USA. Here, we discuss spatial and temporal trends in sediment dynamics over a 25-month period, the sediment accretion rates estimated using the subsurface sediment plate method compared to previous estimates based on 210Pb dating, the precision of the method, and our recommendations for implementing the method for measuring surface sediment dynamics in other seagrass settings. We recommend the application of this method for quantifying short- and long-term changes in seagrass surface sediments across various spatial scales to improve our understanding of disturbance, recovery, restoration, carbon cycling, sediment budgets, and the response of seagrasses to rising sea levels.

Effects of seagrass restoration on coastal fish abundance and diversity.

Restoration is accelerating to reverse global declines of key habitats and recover lost ecosystem functions, particularly in coastal ecosystems. However, there is high uncertainty about the long-term capacity of restored ecosystems to provide habitat and increase biodiversity and the degree to which these ecosystem services are mediated by spatial and temporal environmental variability. We addressed these gaps by sampling fishes biannually for 5-7 years (2012-2018) at 16 sites inside and outside a rapidly expanding restored seagrass meadow in coastal Virginia (USA). Despite substantial among-year variation in abundance and species composition, seine catches in restored seagrass beds were consistently larger (6.4 times more fish, p<0.001) and more speciose (2.6 times greater species richness, p<0.001; 3.1 times greater Hill-Shannon diversity, p=0.03) than seine catches in adjacent unvegetated areas. Catches were particularly larger during summer than autumn (p<0.01). Structural equation modeling revealed that depth and water residence time interacted to control seagrass presence, leading to higher fish abundance and richness in shallow, well-flushed areas that supported seagrass. Together, our results indicate that seagrass restoration yields large and consistent benefits for many coastal fishes, but that restoration and its benefits are sensitive to the dynamic seascapes in which restoration is conducted. Consideration of how seascape-scale environmental variability affects the success of habitat restoration and subsequent ecosystem function will improve restoration outcomes and the provisioning of ecosystem services.

Gap analysis of climate adaptation policymaking in Coastal Virginia

Due to its inherent multidimensionality and complexities, successful climate adaptation policymaking requires a concerted effort among multiple governance levels. Discovering the challenges and governance gaps can provide insights for policymakers paving the way for more effective policies in the future. This paper intends to provide such analysis for Coastal Virginia, a strategic region in the United States receiving significant climate impacts, particularly sea-level rise (SLR) and flooding. Utilizing semi-structured interviews with the main stakeholders and building on the adaptation framework of Moser and Ekstrom, we identify, categorize, and relate main adaptation challenges to better understand the gaps and underlying institutional dynamics causing them. Intergovernmental coordination and comprehensive planning and prioritization are the main overarching challenges, with high emphasis in the literature, while the challenge of retreat and the private sector are less discussed. It is followed by recommendations for different levels of government, informing the path forward from the stakeholders' perspective. A discussion of findings provides several implications for local, state, and federal policymakers. This research could be extended to other coastal and non-coastal areas to help formulate national and sub-national adaptation policies that maintain a holistic vision for adaptation policymaking while pondering the context-specificities of states, regions, and localities. It would be an essential task as adapting to climate change is still in its infancy stages, with the prospect of staying with us for decades to come.