Coach-athlete Interactions Research Articles

An evaluation of the impact of the Irish Rugby Football Union Coach Education Framework on the coach–athlete dyad across the age and stage spectrum in rugby union

The purpose of this research was to evaluate the implementation of the novel Irish Rugby Football Union Coach Education Framework (CEF) on coach–athlete interactions and perceptions. Participants were coaches (n = 4) and athletes (n = 54) from two rugby union teams. Coaches were observed pre-intervention and post-intervention of an education workshop based on the CEF and had nine training sessions video-recorded and analysed using the Coach Analysis and Intervention System (CAIS). Their perceptions of their relationship with their athletes were measured using the Coach–Athlete Relationship Questionnaire (CART-Q). Athlete perceptions of their coaches’ behaviours were measured using the Coaching Behaviour Scale for Sport (CBS-S). CAIS results revealed coaches increased the use of ‘Management’ and ‘Feedback’ behaviours ( p < 0.05) post-CEF, without altering prominent high-volume behaviours (e.g. ‘Instruction’). Coaches utilised similar time proportions for CAIS ‘Practice’, ‘Playing’ and ‘Management’ states, respectively, with no significant change post-CEF. CART-Q and CBS-S results revealed predominantly positive perceptions between coaches and athletes for both pre-CEF and post-CEF. Coach education is a non-linear learning process requiring consistent application over long periods of time, however, the alteration in coach behaviours post-CEF, coupled with the largely positive perceptions of both agents of the coach–athlete dyad, is an encouraging step forward for the further implementation of the CEF.

Analyzing Lived Experiences of Athlete and Coach Relationships in Sports

Objectives. The two main stressors affecting athletes’ wellbeing are relationships between coaches and athletes and social support. This study aims to investigate the connections between athletes’ psychological health, social support, and coach-athlete interactions. Relationships between coaches and athletes have a favorable impact on future coaching techniques and support systems, which in turn improves athlete wellbeing. Materials and methods. This study employed a quantitative approach using survey methods. The study involved 323 respondents consisting of 231 males (71.52%) and 92 females (28.48%). The instrument used in this study was the Instructor–Student Rapport Scale, comprising 2 dimensions (pleasant interactions and personal relationships). The study results were analyzed using the t-test to determine the significance of differences in athletes’ life experiences based on their relationship with the coach. The findings of the study explain that the experiences of athletes’ gender have differences regarding the relationship with the coach. Results. This result has also been proven by the results of the t test calculation of <0.001. Meanwhile, the results of t test calculations related to the type of sport (individual and group) obtained results > 0.001, which states that there is no difference in life experience between athletes and coaches. Conclusions. These findings lead to the conclusion that the most crucial factor in facilitating and enabling meaningful life experiences between coaches and athletes is the coach’s proximity to the athletes.

Coach-athlete relationships and weight controlling behaviour in young athletes: perspectives from Norwegian athletes and coaches in sport climbing

ABSTRACT In sports where low body weight is considered a competitive advantage, athletes are at high risk of developing disordered eating (DE) and eating disorders (ED). Previous studies have found that coach-athlete interactions can prevent or trigger such health issues. As knowledge about how coaches and coach-athlete relationships influence young athletes’ weight controlling behaviour and disordered eating is limited, we conducted qualitative interviews with coaches and athletes in sport climbing to explore these issues further. Our findings suggest that issues related to body weight regulation and performance are often silenced by coaches and athletes, indicating that DE and ED may be blind spots in coach-athlete interactions. Furthermore, most of the interviewed coaches did not consider it their responsibility to address disordered eating and weight-related issues in their athletes. Drawing on relational leadership theory, our analysis demonstrates how mature coach-athlete relationships characterised by trust and open conversations about weight controlling behaviour can be important tools in the prevention of DE and ED in young athletes.

Reimagining the Coach–Athlete–Environment Relationships in the Digital Communications Era

The evolution of 4G and 5G digital technologies is (re)shaping contemporary methods of coaching by removing the requirement for coaches to be physically present at practice and competition venues. This technological advance provides opportunities for sports organisations, especially those with limited resources, to implement innovative learning and performance solutions by delivering remote coaching. In this insight paper, we reimagine what “the coaching environment” could look like by considering how the remote context may shape coaching. Currently, there is limited understanding of the use and implementation of such approaches, highlighting a need for further research to be conducted to better understand how online environments may impact the coaching process. We propose how adopting an ecological dynamics approach may align with existing research within coaching science and contemporary theorising in skill acquisition and motor learning, advocating a learner-centred approach to coaching. We then introduce and discuss the work of Roger Barker with a focus on “behaviour settings” and how this perspective may provide a lens for future research to explore different coaching environments. When complemented by ethnographic methodologies, this approach may provide a novel way to understand how coach–athlete interactions are framed in situ.

Examining the psychometric properties of the Coach-Athlete Relationship Questionnaire (CART-Q) with basketball players in China and Spain.

The study examines the complex interactions between coaches and athletes in federative basketball in two different cultural contexts: China and Spain. The paper examines the interpersonal psychological dimensions from a direct viewpoint and a meta-perspective, drawing on the Coach-Athlete Relationship Questionnaire (CART-Q) and guided by the 3Cs model (Closeness, Commitment, and Complementarity). The CART-Q was translated and modified for use in both nations' federative basketball organizational systems to guarantee cross-cultural applicability. Careful translation techniques were used to achieve semantic homogeneity between the Spanish and Chinese versions of the questionnaire, including talks with knowledgeable linguists. The translated versions improved response comparability and kept the same item numbers as the original 2012 instrument. Out of the 771 distributed questionnaires, 763 legitimate answers were gathered via online surveys conducted using secure platforms (Google Forms for Spain and Wenjuanxing for China). The research included a three-step mediation study using structural equation modeling, which allowed for a thorough investigation of the concurrent validity of the modified CART-Qs. The findings indisputably support the reliability and validity of the CART-Qs translated into Chinese and Spanish. The research shows small but significant cultural disparities in the comprehensive perspective of coach-athlete interactions. These results have extensive ramifications for the sport and highlight how crucial it is to consider cultural differences when coaching and developing athletes.

Coaches’ Use of Remote Coaching: Experiences From Paralympic Sport

Remote coaching via the use of digital technologies has been utilized within Paralympic Sports since 2015 to address challenges experienced by coaches. These technologies have connected coaches and athletes in real time, alleviating time and travel costs. However, very little is known about the experience of coaching in these environments. Therefore, the aim of this study was to explore the experiences of coaches’ use of remote coaching technologies. Seven coaches from five Paralympic Sports were recruited for this study and participated in semistructured interviews. Additionally, observations were conducted of remote coaching sessions that were part of their regular training schedules. Coaches’ insights highlight that remote technologies created opportunities to increase coach–athlete interactions and positively impact the development of interpersonal relationships. This allowed coaches to explore and exploit newly discovered information from within training environments to aid athletes in skill development. Additionally, remote coaching provided unexpected opportunities for coach development. However, coaches also reported new environmental and logistical challenges which disrupted their usual coaching approach. Overall, remote coaching technologies were perceived as being beneficial despite the challenges experienced. However, future research that looks to understand how to impact coach and athlete development through the online environment is encouraged.

Pedagogical touch: exploring the micro-realities of coach–athlete sensory interactions in high-performance sports

ABSTRACT Background Touch has emerged as a social taboo rather than as an educational tool among sport pedagogues, especially in the #MeToo era. Believing that minimising physical contact will protect themselves from sexual allegations, instructors (coaches and PE teachers) are increasingly opting for hands-off practices, which transforms sport into a no-touch zone. Although extant sport literature has focused on the potential risks and controversial issues of intergenerational touch, academic endeavours exploring its pedagogical value in sensory interaction are limited. Purpose This study emphasises the fundamental necessity of pedagogical touch (PT) in high-performance sports. Drawing on Merleau-Ponty’s (1968) ‘flesh’ as an elemental tissue knitting the inter-world by entangling (subjectively sensing and objectively being sensed) the existences of oneself, others, and the world, we examine the micro-realities of PT occurring in coach–athlete interactions. As one of the few empirical investigations using video analysis, this study is expected to complement the current understanding of coach–athlete tactile communication by linking it with Merleau-Ponty’s phenomenological concepts. Methods Sensory ethnography was employed to comprehend the nuances and dynamics of PT in coach–athlete relationships. Sixteen participants, comprising eight coaches and eight adolescent athletes across four high-performance sports (golf, taekwondo, wrestling, and handball), were selected. Empirical data were gathered through observations using body-mounted camcorders (GoPro7), stimulated recall interviews, and semi-structured interviews. The data were analysed by alternating between inductive fieldwork and deductive framework. Results and discussion Our empirical investigation revealed three key findings. First, PT aims to transfer each sport’s normative body schema of postures, muscles, and senses. Second, the overlapping zone of tactile, visual, and auditory sensations—synaesthesia—enables coaches to explore athletes’ inner sensory conditions appropriately for individualised prescriptions of PT. Third, coaches utilise objects as extended bodies to touch opposite-sex athletes without skin-to-skin contact. Reflecting on the results, we discuss conducive considerations for coaches to maintain the pedagogical benefits of touch: (a) educational persuasion regarding the discomfort caused when athletes’ body schema is de/reconstructed by PT; (b) appropriate questions to understand athletes’ internal sensations; and (c) inclusive application of object-mediated touch to ensure the safety of PT by avoiding direct contact with athletes’ sensitive body parts, irrespective of sex or gender. Conclusion Based on the findings, the authors suggest that sporting agencies broaden their attention towards supporting coaches to be professionally prepared for potential touch-related problems. This can be achieved by offering coaches opportunities to cultivate their ethical and pedagogical sensibilities about intergenerational touch through education on actual un/professional PT cases, instead of continuing with the current no-touch discourses (less touch, less problem). Thereby, coaches, who face dilemmas regarding tactile communication without alternative pedagogies, can reflect on their own practice compared to others’ PT cases while building didactic contracts with their athletes and handling problematic circumstances.

Task and Social Determinants of Coaches’ Reports of Leader-Member Exchange

Leader-member exchange theory (LMX) has proliferated as a framework for understanding coach-athlete interactions, as the exchanges of communicative resources greatly influence athletes’ sporting experiences. The current study uses coaches’ perceptions of task and social determinants of LMX to reveal comparative insights about forming low- and high-quality exchanges. Data collected from 380 coaches, spanning 14 different sports, at 160 high schools indicated that high-quality exchanges are solely determined by athletes’ abilities. In contrast, low-quality exchanges are determined by coaches’ negative affect towards athletes, and to a lesser extent, athletes’ poor performances and lack of competitiveness. Findings contribute to sports communication literature by examining LMX from coaches’ perspectives and identifying the unique determinants of various groupings within LMX. Both coaches and athletes may find utility in the current findings as they look to create meaningful relationships and positive sporting experiences.

Sexual Harassment or Just Coaching? Sport Students Making Sense of Possibly Sexualising Coach Behaviours

Research has shown that athletes are divided in their assessment of possibly sexualising behaviours from coaches towards athletes. How they arrive at their conclusions has received less attention—yet it is crucial to understand as a basis for safeguarding measures. Using video-elicitation focus group interviews with sport students, we zoomed in on different types of ‘grey area’ situations involving coaches and athletes. We drew on social script theory to highlight the cultural tools sport students use to distinguish between acceptable and unacceptable coaching behaviours. Our analyses showed that the students drew on two types of scripts in their interpretative work: (1) sport scripts, denoting templates for ‘normal’ coach–athlete interactions (typically with a performance and/or caring rationale), and (2) sexual harassment scripts, encompassing beliefs and expectations of how sexual transgressions play out and among whom. We discuss how the students evaluated concrete grey area situations by comparing and contrasting them with both scripts. In these assessments, the students relied on cues and clues from the portrayed interactions, including the gender of the coach and athlete and knowledge about the specific sport setting. Our analyses demonstrate how views about sexual harassment in sport relate to the specificities of the sport setting and the gendered social dynamics in the situation.

The Practice Environment-How Coaches May Promote Athlete Learning.

The coaching environment is the primary teaching and learning medium for the development of athlete skills. Therefore, by understanding how practice environments are designed to facilitate learning, coaches can make decisions around the structure of specific activities and behavior to promote athlete learning and development. This short review examines the coaching environment literature, with a particular focus on the structure and content within a practice session. The review will highlight the specific activities coaches utilize to develop athletes technical and tactical skills. Further, the coaching behaviors used to promote athlete learning is discussed, and how coach athlete interactions may influence learning. Finally, we provide applied recommendations for coaches, and highlight areas for future coaching science research.

What if I had made a different decision? Experienced regrets of college coaches

ABSTRACT Regret is a negative emotion elicited by thoughts that different actions or inactions would have yielded better outcomes. Although experienced feelings of regret can have negative consequences, anticipated regrets may positively impact decision-making. Coaches make numerous decisions daily, yet there is a dearth of information related to coaches and regret. Coaches’ emotions are commonly neglected in sports literature. To fill that gap, the current study explored experienced regrets of college coaches. Coaches were emailed an electronic survey. A total of 125 male and female coaches from a variety of sports responded, and 83.2% admitted having regrets. All regrets were content analysed, revealing three major themes: (a) sport-specific decisions, (b) coach-athlete interactions, and (c) personal. Current findings provide initial insights into college coaches’ regrets, and the researchers provide suggestions for minimising similar regrets among future coaches.

The role of debriefing in enhancing learning and development in professional boxing

ABSTRACT The use of debriefing by 6 elite coaches (9–16 years’ experience coaching professional boxers) and 6 professional boxers (minimum 3 professional bouts) was explored via interviews (25–40 minutes). Boxers represented the featherweight, welterweight, and heavyweight divisions. Interview questions were framed around, 1) the use of video and data analysis, 2) coach-athlete interaction, and 3) learning and development. The importance of data, video, and the effective integration of performance analysis to facilitate comprehensive feedback to maximise learning opportunities was identified. The coach-athlete relationship, and engagement of the athlete within the debriefing process emerged as an aspect needing continual micro-management to ensure ongoing effectiveness. The development of an “open and honest” relationship and a “safe space” to air thoughts and opinions was greatly encouraged. The length of debriefing session did not appear to impact overall engagement. The use of video debriefing to facilitate a coach’s ability to develop the athletes mentally, in addition to their physical boxing capabilities, was a key and standout aspect that should be appropriately considered. The findings add to the limited investigation within boxing, providing insight into the debriefing processes within professional boxing by those on both sides, i.e. the coach and the athlete.

Desired coaching behaviours of elite divers during competition

ABSTRACT A great deal of research on coach-athlete interactions during competition has focused on team sports, something which does not consider the many contextual differences between team and individual sports. Diving is an individual sport where recurrent intermittent breaks between dives in competition provide athletes and coaches with opportunities to communicate and interact during an event. The purpose of this study was to understand elite divers’ perspectives of their coaches’ behaviours during competition. Data were collected through semi-structured interviews and documents with six national team springboard and platform divers. A reflexive thematic analysis of the data revealed that athletes and coaches carefully developed and implemented individualised routines to deal with the pressures of competition. Athletes discussed the importance of trust and understanding with their coaches as crucial elements to facilitate performance in a high-risk sport. Athletes also found it particularly challenging when they felt their coaches were frustrated, disappointed, or giving up on them. From a practical perspective, our findings are useful for coaches and athletes in similar sports with intermittent breaks throughout the long day of competition, such as track and field, snowboarding, freestyle skiing, and weightlifting.

"Coach Really Knew What I Needed and Understood Me Well as a Person": Effective Communication Acts in Coach-Athlete Interactions among Korean Olympic Archers.

The purpose of this study is to qualitatively explore situations in which athletes perceived communication with their coach to be important and determine the effect of this communication on the athletes. Literature on the communication process in sports emphasizes the distinct characteristics of each sports and its setting. However, previous research has not studied various settings in detail, and archery is yet to be explored. The qualitative process included an in-depth, semi-structured interview with eight Olympic archers. Thematic analysis was used to interpret the data. Athletes perceived communication with coaches to be important during their performance, while dealing with psychological crises, and during their training. Our analysis suggests that, depending on the communicative actions, a coach may positively or negatively impact an athlete’s self-awareness, self-confidence, anxiety, autonomy, and motivation. A noteworthy finding of this study is that archers perceive communication with coaches about the selection and management of equipment as important. This study emphasizes the critical role of an athlete’s communication with the coach in various situations and discusses the theoretical and practical implications in the context of sports performance.

Australian female athlete perceptions of the challenges associated with training and competing when menstrual symptoms are present

Coaches consider various competencies (e.g. conditioning, nutrition, skills and tactics), when planning sessions, though rarely the impact of menstruation on the efficacy of training and competition performance for athletes. Given the impact menstrual symptoms can have on athletes, the management strategies that athletes may use to minimise any potential impact, and the mechanisms that provide barriers to greater coach athlete interaction require investigation and consideration. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the strategies used by athletes to manage menstrual symptoms and the role coaches played in this process. An anonymous, 36-item questionnaire was developed and hosted on Qualtrics. Descriptive statistics and Chi-square statistics were used to analyse the data. One hundred and twenty-four valid responses from Australian athletes 16–45, with a mean age of 29 years, were received. Period pain (82%) and pre-menstrual symptoms (83%) were commonly reported and contributed to fatigue and to perceived reductions in performance during or just prior to the period (50.0% in training, 58.7% on ‘game day’). Contraceptive use was reported by 42% of athletes. Those reporting heavy menstrual bleeding (29.7%) were more likely to report increased fatigue (relative risk 1.6, 95% CI 1.07 to 2.32). Over three-quarters of athletes reported neither they nor their coaches altered training due to the menstrual cycle. Most athletes (76%) did not discuss menstruation with their coaches. Given the perceived negative impact on performance and potential risks with contraceptive usage during adolescence, coaches, trainers and athletes need to have a more open dialogue around the menstrual cycle.

Analyzing the Relationship Between Coaching Behavior, Coach-Athlete interaction, Team Atmosphere, and Athlete Burnout through Path Analysis

Analyzing the Relationship Between Coaching Behavior, Coach-Athlete interaction, Team Atmosphere, and Athlete Burnout through Path Analysis

Development and transfer of life skills in figure skating: Experiences of athletes and their coaches

ABSTRACT Sport coaches play an influential role in facilitating the development and transfer of life skills of their athletes. In individual sports this influence may be particularly prevalent given the frequency and nature of coach-athlete interactions, which are central to the development of life skills. Yet, studies examining the development of life skills have mainly focused on team sports in school settings and with male participants. Thus, examining individual sports in community settings with female coaches and athletes can provide a unique understanding of the development and transfer of life skills within a little explored setting. The purpose of the present study was to examine the experiences of figure skating coaches and their skaters regarding the development and transfer of life skills. A multiple-case study design was used with four cases, each composed of one coach and two of their athletes. The coaches averaged more than 30 years of coaching experience and skaters competed at the provincial or national level, practicing their sport for an average of 12 years. Two semi-structured interviews were conducted with each participant. A content analysis revealed that skaters learned a wide range of life skills, including perseverance, goal setting, emotional regulation, and respect mostly because of their sports’ demands. The transfer of these life skills occurred implicitly through changes in skaters’ personality reinforced by explicit discussions with coaches, parents, and sport psychologists. These findings suggest that the complexity of life skills development and transfer requires an integrative approach between the key actors in the athlete’s sport setting.

고등학교 태권도 선수들의 지도자-선수 상호작용이 경기력에 미치는 영향

이 연구는 고등학교 태권도 지도자-선수 상호작용이 경기력에 미치는 영향을 검증하고, 이들의 관계에서 성별에 따른 조절효과를 파악하여 태권도 선수들의 경기력 향상을 위한 기초자료를 제공하기 위한 목적으로 진행되었다. 이러한 연구의 목적을 달성하기 위해 2018년도 대한태권도협회에 선수등록을 마친 서울, 경기, 인천, 충남, 부산의 고등학교 태권도 겨루기 선수 301명을 비확률 표집방법의 목적적 표집방법으로 선정하여 설문을 실시하였으며, 수집된 자료는 SPSS 21.0 Version program과 AMOS 21.0 Version program 프로그램을 이용하여 분석하였다. 이상의 분석 과정을 거쳐 다음과 같은 결과가 도출되었다. 첫째, 고등학교 선수들이 인지하는 지도자-선수 상호작용은 경기력에 긍정적인 영향을 미치는 것으로 나타났다. 둘째, 조절효과 분석을 실시한 결과 남녀 집단 모두 상호작용이 경기력에 긍정적인 영향을 미쳤지만, 그 차이는 없는 것으로 나타났다. 이러한 결과는 태권도 훈련과정에서 지도자-선수 상호작용이 선수들의 경기력을 높여줄 수 있는 방법으로 매우 효과적인 접근이라는 것을 의미하며, 특히 겨루기 선수들의 인지된 경기력을 향상시키기 위한 방법으로 효과적이라는 것을 시사한다.

Relation between Coach-Athlete Interaction perceived by College Taekwondo Players and Leader Trust and Perceived Performance

Relation between Coach-Athlete Interaction perceived by College Taekwondo Players and Leader Trust and Perceived Performance

Development and application of a team building program focused on adaptation to college life and new team of freshmen student-athletes

Purpose This study was designed to develop a team building program that helps freshmen student-athletes to adapt to college life and enhance team function and process and to examine the effects of this program. It could provide basic information of a team building program that effectively accelerates team function in the college team sports domain Methods The program was developed through this process. First, an open-ended questionnaire was utilized to discover the needs of the program. Second, the results of needs of the program and important factors of team-building program were taken into consideration. Third, expert meetings were conducted. Consequently, the program consisted of three stages of total 10 sessions which was 90 min long. The questionnaires(Group Cohesion Questionnaire and Coach-Athlete Relationship Questionnaire), experience report, and program evaluation form were used as measures to identify the effects of the developed program. SPSS version 24.0 and inductive analysis were used to analyze the data Results The results of this study are as follows. First, there was no statistically significant influence between developed program and the level of group cohesion. In contrast, the level of coach-athlete interaction was significantly increased. Second, the analysis of experience report revealed that this program reduced interpersonal conflict between team members and formed positive interpersonal relationship by mind of respect and consideration Conclusion In conclusion, the hierarchical culture was strongly formed and team member suffered from the dual role of athlete and student in Korean college team sports. Thus, these should be resolved in order to enhance team function and process. As a results, this process could increase team performance as well as offer psychological stability to college student-athletes.