CO2 Capture And Storage Technology Research Articles

Nanofluids and Nanocomposite Membranes for Enhanced CO2 Capture: A Comprehensive Review

Abstract The increasing concentration of greenhouse gasses in Earth's atmosphere is a critical concern, of which 75% of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions are from the combustion of fossil fuels. This rapid increase in emissions led to irredeemable damages to ecosystems, such as climate change and acid rain. As a result, industries and academia have focused on developing innovative and cost-effective technologies for CO2 capture and storage (CCS). Physical/chemical absorption using amine and membrane-based technologies is generally used in CCS systems. However, the inherent technical and cost-effective limitations of these techniques directed their attention toward applying nanotechnologies for CCS systems. Here, the researchers have focused on infusing nanoparticles (NPs) into existing CCS technologies. The NPs could either be suspended in a base fluid to create nanofluids (NFs) or infused with membrane base materials to create nanocomposite membranes for enhanced carbon capture capabilities. This review paper investigates the manufacturing methods, characterization techniques, and various mechanisms to analyze the impact of nanoparticles-infused nanofluids and nanocomposite membranes for CO2 capture. Finally, the paper summarizes the factors associated with the two technologies and then outlines the drawbacks and benefits of incorporating NPs for CCS applications.

Techno-economic evaluation of CO2 capture and storage retrofit in decarbonizing different thermal power plants: A case study in China

Given that thermal power plants are the dominant mode of power generation in China, decarbonization from thermal power plants is significant to protect the global climate from further warming. CO2 capture and storage (CCS) is one of the most promising approaches for mitigating CO2 emissions; therefore, studies evaluating the effect of CCS retrofit on thermal power plants are urgently required. This study selected coal-fired power plant (CFPP) and natural gas combined cycle power plant (NGCC) as the representative technologies for thermal power plants, and proposed system models for their integrations with CCS. A comprehensive evaluation system was established using different metrics such as specific CO2 emission (CO2 emission per kWh), net electric efficiency, levelized cost of electricity (LCOE), and cost of avoiding CO2 emission (COAE). The detailed effects of fuel price fluctuations, technological advances, and different technology combinations on key metrics were analyzed, in order to propose policy recommendations for the decarbonization of China's thermal power plants using CCS technology. The following results were obtained: (1) The use of CCS to reduce CO2 emissions from thermal power plants will lead to a significant increase in LCOE. Each 100 g/kWh reduction in specific CO2 emission will result in 11 %–14.5 % increase in LCOE for CFPP + CCS, and 9.5 %–13.5 % increase for NGCC + CCS. (2) Technological advances toward reducing specific heat consumption for CO2 capture should be strongly promoted to reduce LCOE. Each 0.4 GJ/t reduction in specific heat consumption will result in an approximately 0.066 CNY/kWh reduction in LCOE for CFPP. (3) Both CFPP + CCS and NGCC + CCS exhibit potential for decreasing COAE below 600 CNY/t, although the technologies to meet this threshold are not currently realistic at higher fuel prices.

Economic aspects of using the technologies for carbon dioxide capture and storage in hydrogen production projects

Subject. The article addresses one of the most promising alternatives to the development of low-carbon hydrogen production based on renewable energy sources by water electrolysis, i.e. traditional steam conversion of methane and coal gasification, but with the use of CO2 capture and storage technologies (CCS). Objectives. The aim is to review CCS technologies projects, analyze commercial prospects for their industrial application in the production of low-carbon hydrogen in Russia and internationally. Methods. The study draws on methods of literature review, content analysis of regulatory documentation, descriptive statistics, and case study. Analytical reviews of the International Energy Agency and the CCUS project database of the Global CCS Institute served as the information base of the research. Results. Commercial projects for capture and storage of hydrogen at various stages of development are implemented in 31 countries. Prospects for CCS technologies development in Russia are assessed quite highly in the international expert community. According to the CCS Readiness Index calculated under the methodology of the Global CCS Institute, recently, Russia is among the countries with the highest index figures, although it is inferior to the most BRICS partners. Conclusions. Widespread adoption of CCS technologies can significantly affect the future development of the global energy market and the share of Russia in it. Despite the growing share of renewable energy in the global energy balance and in the production of innovative energy products, the prospects for complete displacement of hydrocarbon fuels from the market currently seem unattainable. Therefore, the decarbonization of the global economy is impossible without CCS technologies development in the coming decades.

Contemporary avenues of the Hydrogen industry: Opportunities and challenges in the eco-friendly approach

Hydrogen (H2) is a possible energy transporter and feedstock for energy decarbonization, transportation, and chemical sectors while reducing global warming's consequences. The predominant commercial method for producing H2 today is steam methane reforming (SMR). However, there is still room for development in process intensification, energy optimization, and environmental concerns related to CO2 emissions. Reactors using metallic membranes (MRs) can handle both problems. Compared to traditional reactors, MRs operates at substantially lower pressures and temperatures. As a result, capital and operational costs may be significantly cheaper than traditional reactors. Furthermore, metallic membranes (MMs), particularly Pd and its alloys, naturally permit only H2 permeability, enabling the production of a stream with a purity of up to 99.999%. This review describes several methods for H2 production based on the energy sources utilized. SRM with CO2 capture and storage (CCUS), pyrolysis of methane, and water electrolysis are all investigated as process technologies. A debate based on a color code was also created to classify the purity of H2 generation. Although producing H2 using fossil fuels is presently the least expensive method, green H2 generation has the potential to become an affordable alternative in the future. From 2030 onward, green H2 is anticipated to be less costly than blue hydrogen. Green H2 is more expensive than fossil-based H2 since it uses more energy. Blue H2 has several tempting qualities, but the CCUS technology is pricey, and blue H2 contains carbon. At this time, almost 80–95% of CO2 can be stored and captured by the CCUS technology. Nanomaterials are becoming more significant in solving problems with H2 generation and storage. Sustainable nanoparticles, such as photocatalysts and bio-derived particles, have been emphasized for H2 synthesis. New directions in H2 synthesis and nanomaterials for H2 storage have also been discussed. Further, an overview of the H2 value chain is provided at the end, emphasizing the financial implications and outlook for 2050, i.e., carbon-free H2 and zero-emission H2.

A techno-economic assessment of the reutilisation of municipal solid waste incineration ash for CO2 capture from incineration flue gases by calcium looping

Waste-to-Energy (WtE) through municipal solid waste (MSW) incineration is a key waste management strategy to reduce the mass and volume of landfilled wastes, especially for land-constrained areas such as urban centres. However, this process releases large amounts of CO2 into the atmosphere and the ash that remains after burning, which contains a variety of metals and minerals, is often sent to the landfill after some metal recovery. In this study, the CaO containing ash is used to derive sorbents for the calcium looping (CaL) process for post-combustion CO2 capture and storage (CCS), and a techno-economic assessment was performed to preliminarily probe the feasibility of retrofitting a CaL plant using ash-derived sorbents to capture CO2 from a 200MWth WtE plant, as a possible means to decarbonise WtE plants. The analysis was performed through process modelling of the CaL plant using 4 different supplementary fuels in the calciner, namely, biomass charcoal (BC), solid recovered fuel (SRF), coal, and natural gas (NG). At the base purge ratio of 5%, all the cases show increases in the levelised cost of electricity (LCOE) over the base WtE, ranging from 184 (NG) to 246 (BC) USD/MWhe. The sale of additional electricity generated from the heat recovery steam cycle could slightly mitigates the capital intensiveness of the process, resulting in a levelised cost of carbon abatement (LCCA) range of USD 89 (SRF) to 184 (coal)/tCO2, which is competitive with other bioenergy with CO2 capture and storage (BECCS) technologies. The biogenic fuels also result in lower specific primary energy consumption per CO2 avoided (SPECCA) of 5.6 (BC) and 6.8 (SRF) MJLHV/tCO2, which are comparable to values from other CCS technologies and CaL implementation studies. Sensitivity analysis of 14 economic and process parameters reveals that further improvements can be achieved through optimisation of the energy intensive sub-processes, such as cryogenic air separation and CO2 compression and purification. Tighter solid heat integration (SHI) concepts were also modelled and are shown to effectively reduce fuel and O2 requirements by up to 22.2%, thereby lowering annualised costs by up to 11.9%. In addition, this paper highlights the importance of regulatory support through favourable policies such as higher carbon pricing and CO2 credit trading to push the development and adoption of negative emission technologies to meet global decarbonisation targets.

Reduction potential of the energy penalty for CO2 capture in CCS

CO2 capture and storage (CCS) has been acknowledged as an essential part of a portfolio of technologies that are required to achieve cost-effective long-term CO2 mitigation. However, the development progress of CCS technologies is far behind the targets set by roadmaps, and engineering practices do not lead to commercial deployment. One of the crucial reasons for this delay lies in the unaffordable penalty caused by CO2 capture, even though the technology has been commonly recognized as achievable. From the aspects of separation and capture technology innovation, the potential and promising direction for solving this problem were analyzed, and correspondingly, the possible path for deployment of CCS in China was discussed. Under the carbon neutral target recently proposed by the Chinese government, the role of CCS and the key milestones for deployment were indicated.

The carbon footprint and cost of coal-based hydrogen production with and without carbon capture and storage technology in China

CCS (CO 2 capture and storage) technology provides technical support for low-carbon hydrogen production from coal. This study evaluates the carbon footprint and cost of coal-based hydrogen production with and without CCS in China by introducing provincial coal prices and electricity prices, as well as the life cycle greenhouse gas emission factor for consumed electricity. The results show that the carbon footprint of coal to hydrogen is reduced by 52.34%–74.59% to 4.92–10.90 CO 2 eq/kg H 2 after installing CCS technology, which is close to that of solar electricity-based hydrogen production. In addition, CCS increases the cost by 44.59%–60.84% to 1.44–2.11 USD/kg H 2 , but it does not deprive the cost advantage of hydrogen production from coal over renewable electricity-based hydrogen production. Therefore, China should promote the development of coal to hydrogen with CCS to meet the growing demand for hydrogen, at least before there is a breakthrough in hydrogen production from renewable electricity. West China may be the preferred option for future new coal to hydrogen plants, where the cost of coal to hydrogen with CCS is lower than that of other regions. Of course, other complex factors, such as the regional distribution of demand, must be considered to truly determine the site. In addition, coal-to-hydrogen plants in Inner Mongolia, Xinjiang and Shaanxi Provinces, with low hydrogen production costs , strong carbon constraints and low CCS costs, should be the priority option for early CCS projects in China. • The carbon footprint of coal to hydrogen without CCS is 19.37–22.87 CO 2 eq/kg H 2 . • CCS technology can reduce the carbon footprint by 52.34%–74.59%. • The cost of coal to hydrogen without CCS is 0.90–1.46 USD/kg H 2 . • The installation of CCS will increase the cost by 44.59%–60.84%.

Application of ORC to reduce the energy penalty of carbon capture in non-stationary ICE

The electrification of productive activities cannot be considered the only strategy for a low-carbon economy, and sectors such as road freight and passenger transport will have to continue using technologies based on combustion in the medium and long term. It is expected that sustainable synthetic fuels and CO2 capture and storage technologies (CCS) can help to reduce greenhouse emissions. However, the occupation of spaces and the energy penalty of the capture are handicapped in smaller facilities, such as conventional combustion engine vehicles, and determine its technical and economic viability. In this paper, AVL boost and Aspen + softwares simulations are performed to analyze the feasibility of using an Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC) to supply the power consumption of an on-board CCS system coupled to an internal combustion engine (ICE) operating at partial engine loads and over the whole rpm range. Two spark-ignition engines of different sizes, fueled with CH4, have been modelled, and temperature swing adsorption is selected as a viable method for the CCS system, assuming a carbon capture rate of 90 %. Results show that the ORC reduces between 3.9 and 13.9 % the penalization of the CCS system over the engine power, keeping it under 8.84 % in the small engine and 5.71 % in the large engine. It can be concluded that an ORC-CCS hybridized system is energy feasible for the operation of an ICE working at partial loads in the entire rpm.

Mineral carbonation of thermally treated and weathered biomass ashes with respect to their CO2 capture and storage

Five long-term stored biomass ashes (BAs) from beech wood chips, corn cobs, sunflower shells, plum pits, and walnut shells produced at 500 °C were thermally treated at 900 °C and subsequently weathered to evaluate their CO2 capture and storage (CCS) potential by mineral carbonation. A combination of different mineralogical, chemical and thermal analyses was used for that purpose. The BAs studied are highly enriched in alkaline-earth and alkaline oxides (52–91%) and they belong to diverse chemical ash types. The minerals responsible for CCS of these BAs include Ca, K, K-Ca and Ca-Mg carbonates and bicarbonates such as calcite, fairchildite, kalicinite, dolomite, and butschliite. The formation of these minerals is a result of interactions between alkaline-earth and alkaline oxyhydroxides in BA and flue CO2 gas during residual char combustion and especially atmospheric CO2 during BA storage and weathering. It was found that the BAs studied show significant CCS capacity, namely about 19–33% (mean 27%). It was emphasized that the renewable and carbon-neutral biomass also has some extra CCS potential due to the sequestration of atmospheric CO2 during BA storage and weathering. Therefore, the future large-scale bioenergy production in a sustainable way can contribute greatly for decreasing CO2 emissions in the atmosphere and can reduce the use of costly CCS technologies.

Mineral Carbonation of Biomass Ashes in Relation to Their CO2 Capture and Storage Potential.

Short-term stored, long-term stored, and weathered biomass ashes (BAs) produced from eight biomass varieties were studied to define their composition, mineral carbonation, and CO2 capture and storage (CCS) potential by a combination of methods. Most of these BAs are highly enriched in alkaline-earth and alkaline oxides, and the minerals responsible for CCS in them include carbonates such as calcite, kalicinite, and fairchildite, and to a lesser extent, butschliite and baylissite. These minerals are a result of reactions between alkaline-earth and alkaline oxyhydroxides in BA and flue CO2 gas during biomass combustion and atmospheric CO2 during BA storage and weathering. The mineral composition of the short-term stored, long-term stored, and weathered BAs is similar; however, there are increased proportions of carbonates and especially bicarbonates in the long-term stored BAs and particularly weathered BAs. The carbonation of BAs based on the measurement of CO2 volatilization determined in fixed temperature ranges is approximately 1–27% (mean 11%) for short-term stored BAs, 2–33% (mean 18%) for long-term stored BAs, and 2–34% (mean 22%) for weathered BAs. Hence, biomass has some extra CCS potential because of sequestration of atmospheric CO2 in BA, and the forthcoming industrial bioenergy production in a sustainable way can contribute for decreasing CO2 emissions and can reduce the use of costly CCS technologies.

Toward Improved Guidelines for Uncertainty Analysis of Carbon Capture and Storage Techno-economic Studies

Uncertainty analysis is a key element of sound techno-economic analysis (TEA) of CO2 capture and storage (CCS) technologies and systems, and in the communication of TEA results. Many CCS technologies are novel concepts, that are still in the early (pre-commercial) stages of development. Therefore, uncertainties in their technology performance and cost are often substantial, making it imperative that they be characterized, and their impacts reported. Although uncertainty analysis itself is not novel, with some methods already frequently used by the CCS TEA community, a document that provides a comprehensive overview of methods and approaches, as well as guidance on their selection and use, is still lacking. Given its importance, we seek to fill this gap by providing a critical review of uncertainty analysis methods along with guidance on the selection and use of these methods for CCS TEAs, highlighting good practice and examples from the CCS literature. There are many opportunities to bring the use of uncertainty analysis to a higher level than currently practiced. This review of and guidance on available methods is intended to help accelerate continued methods development and their application to more robust and meaningful CCS performance and cost studies.

Decarbonising steel production using CO2 Capture and Storage (CCS): Results of focus group discussions in a Welsh steel-making community

Carbon dioxide Capture and Storage (CCS) is considered a key strategy for decarbonising industries which have limited options for tackling CO2 process emissions. Previous efforts to develop CCS projects have been thwarted by adverse public perceptions amongst other issues. Understanding and tracking public perceptions prior to project development is therefore highly advisable.This study explores public perceptions of applying CCS technology at the Port Talbot Steelworks in South Wales. Opinions of local residents were gathered by means of two focus groups. Participants were concerned about the impact of implementing CCS on the competitiveness of the plant and, as a consequence, the possibility of closure. Perceived positive impacts were that a CCS facility would improve local air quality as well as the town’s public image, bringing inward investment. Acceptance or otherwise of CCS was found to be influenced by trust. Participants expressed particular distrust towards the local steel firm and various levels of Government, citing poor engagement, whilst showing tentative trust towards scientific/research organisations. Most participants saw emission reducing technologies as an inevitability, with most considering CCS to be of benefit to the Port Talbot Steelworks. If an effective engagement strategy and equal-voice procedures are applied, the residents of Port Talbot could be amenable to CCS.

Popularization of Carbon Capture and Storage Technology in Society: Principles and Methods.

The problem of global warming is a key challenge. One means to prevent climate change is to reduce the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. This can be achieved using CO2 capture and storage (CCS) technology. Due to the relative novelty of the technology, low level of experience, and high risk of implementation, in practice society often displays a negative attitude towards CCS projects. Thus, it is necessary to develop a targeted strategy to popularize CO2 capture and storage technology. Based on an extensive literature review and the experience of implementation of CCS projects in different countries, this study demonstrates the necessity of applying the deficit, contextual, lay expertise, and public participation models to promote CCS technology. As a result, the factors influencing the choice of promotion tools are identified, and the measures to popularize CCS technology, depending on the stage of its implementation, are determined. Recommendations for the improvement of CCS public databases are developed. The methodologies used this study include case studies, system-oriented analysis, and stakeholder management tools.

Uncertainty analysis in the techno-economic assessment of CO2 capture and storage technologies. Critical review and guidelines for use

Uncertainty analysis is a key element of sound techno-economic analysis (TEA) of CO2 Capture and Storage (CCS) technologies and systems, and in the communication of TEA results. Many CCS technologies are relatively novel, with only few large-scale projects constructed and in operation to date. Therefore, uncertainties in technology performance and costs are often substantial, making it imperative that they be characterized and reported. Although uncertainty analysis itself is not novel, with some methods already frequently used by the CCS TEA community, a document that provides a comprehensive overview of methods and approaches, as well as guidance on their selection and use, is still lacking. Given its importance, we seek to fill this gap by providing a critical review of uncertainty analysis methods along with guidance on the selection and use of these methods for CCS TEAs, highlighting good practice and examples from the CCS literature. The paper starts by identifying the different audiences for CCS TEAs, the different modelling approaches available for CCS technology performance and cost analysis, and the different roles that uncertainty analysis may play. It then continues to discuss established, as well as emerging, uncertainty analysis methods and addresses how and when each method is best used, as well as common pitfalls. We argue that the most commonly used method of one-parameter-at-a-time ‘local’ sensitivity analysis may often be a suboptimal choice, and that other approaches may be more suitable or lead to more insight, especially since uncertainty analysis software is becoming more widespread and easier to use. Finally, the paper discusses the benefits of advanced uses of uncertainty analysis in, for instance, the design of CCS experiments or in the design and planning of CCS infrastructure. Sound uncertainty analysis has an important role to play in TEAs of CCS technologies and systems, and there are many opportunities to bring the use of uncertainty analysis to a higher level than currently practiced. This review of and guidance on available methods is intended to help accelerate continued methods development and their application to more robust and meaningful CCS performance and costing studies.

Technologies and Materials for Carbon Dioxide Capture

This paper was aims to review the technologies and materials for CO2 capture. Carbon dioxide is one of the triggers for the greenhouse effect and global warming. Some methods to reduce CO2 are separation technologies include air capture, CO2 Capture Utilization and Storage (CCUS) and CO2 Capture and Storage (CCS) technology. CCS technology have several systems namely post-combution, pre-combustion and oxy-fuel combustion. Post-combution systems can be done in various systems including absorption, adsorption, membrane, and cryogenic. Adsorption proses for CO2 capture applied with porous material such us mesopore silica, zeolite, carbon, MOF dan COF. This review was described the advantages and disadvantages of each technology for CO2 capture. Materials for CO2 adsorption also descibed in this review.

Profiting from CCS innovations: A study to measure potential value creation from CCS research and development

Globally, large private and public funds are invested into CO2 capture and storage (CCS) research to provide the knowledge and technology required to mitigate CO2 emissions below a sustainable level. A pertinent question to ask is whether this is the best way of spending limited resources. This paper presents a study aiming to quantify the potential economic gains from selected CCS innovations created in the international research centre BIGCCS and its successor NCCS. Development of CCS technology is currently driven by technology push and the lack of a market makes it hard to predict future potentials for increased revenue. Consequently, the study investigates potential cost reductions from implementing the innovations in full-scale industry projects based on qualified assumptions. The results show that even with limited deployment of CCS the potential cost savings from implementation of the innovations by far exceed the research investment. Additional value not considered is in this work is expected from commercialisation of the technologies for the technology providers, improved competitive edge for providers of CO2 free products and enhanced safety for people, equipment and environment. By developing illustrative examples from technology innovations, the study aims to contribute to a broader public CCS debate addressing also potential gains and commercial opportunities in addition to the current focus on costs and safety.

Techno-Economic Assessment of Novel vs. Standard 5m Piperazine CCS Absorption Processes for Conventional and High-efficiency NGCC Power Plants

CO2 capture and storage (CCS) can play a key role in the mitigation of greenhouse gas emissions, as it is generally applicable to many industrial sectors to limit the environmental impacts from fossil fuels usage. In this regard, natural gas-fired power plants are a suitable application for CCS technologies, although they produce flue gases with a much lower CO2 concentration (i.e. ~4 %mol) than coal-fired power plant flue gases. Amine-based solvent absorption has been widely studied as a practical solution to decarbonize post-combustion flue gases from natural gas combined cycle power plants (NGCC). This paper presents the methodology and the results of a techno-economic assessment of 5 molal (5m) piperazine (PZ) as a new potential baseline solvent for carbon capture from NGCC in three different case studies that have been considered relevant from a preliminary literature analysis. The three evaluated configurations are (i) conventional F-class NGCC coupled with the conventional absorber configuration with a direct contact cooler (DCC), (ii) conventional F-class NGCC coupled with an advanced absorber configuration (no DCC – flue gas cooling integrated within the absorber) and (iii) high efficiency, state-of-the-art H-class NGCC, coupled with the advanced absorber configuration. The present work is based on the most recent findings from University of Texas at Austin (UT) research activities, and it has been carried out by Laboratorio Energia e Ambiente Piacenza (LEAP) and Politecnico di Milano (POLIMI) researchers supported and sponsored by the CO2 Capture Project (CCP).

Energy Savings in CO2 Capture System through Intercooling Mechanism

It has been globally recognized as necessary to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions for mitigating the adverse effects of global warming on earth. Carbon dioxide (CO2) capture and storage (CCS) technologies can play a critical role to achieve these reductions. Current CCS technologies use several different approaches including adsorption, membrane separation, physical and chemical absorption to separate CO2 from flue gases. This study aims to evaluate the performance and energy savings of CO2 capture system based on chemical absorption by installing an intercooler in the system. Monoethanolamine (MEA) was used as the absorption solvent and Aspen HYSYS (ver. 9) was used to simulate the CO2 capturing model. The positioning of the intercooler was studied in 10 different cases and compared with the base case 0 without intercooling. It was found that the installation of the intercooler improved the overall efficiency of CO2 recovery in the designed system for all 1-10 cases. Intercooler case 9 was found to be the best case in providing the highest recovery of CO2 (92.68%), together with MEA solvent savings of 2.51%. Furthermore, energy savings of 16 GJ/h was estimated from the absorber column alone, that would increase many folds for the entire CO2 capture plant. The intercooling system, thus showed improved CO2 recovery performance and potential of significant savings in MEA solvent loading and energy requirements, essential for the development of economical and optimized CO2 capturing technology.

Economic assessment of packed bed chemical looping combustion and suitable benchmarks

CO2 capture and storage (CCS) must be deployed on a large scale if global temperature rise is to be limited to 2°C. To facilitate such a rapid expansion, it is crucial that costs are reduced from today’s levels. Energy penalty is the biggest single contributor to the cost of CCS. This work therefore presents an economic assessment of the packed bed chemical looping combustion (PBCLC) concept for near-zero emission power production with minimal energy penalty. Results showed that the PBCLC concept integrated into an integrated gasification combined cycle (IGCC) power plant resulted in similar CO2 avoidance costs as a supercritical pulverized coal plant with CCS: 66 €/ton (including CO2 transport and storage). Relative to an unabated IGCC plant, the CO2 avoidance cost was 34 €/ton, significantly lower than the costs of an IGCC power plant with pre-combustion CO2 capture (47 €/ton). Moderate sensitivities to uncertainties regarding the PBCLC oxygen carrier material lifetime and reactor cost were observed. The promise of the PBCLC concept therefore strongly depends on future cost reductions from IGCC power plants (e.g. through hot gas clean-up and advanced gas turbine technology). Finally, a sensitivity analysis to future policy developments showed that today’s CCS technology is already cost competitive with unabated power plants under policy developments consistent with the 2°C global temperature rise goal.

World Bank CCS Program activities in South Africa – Results and Lessons Learned

The World Bank Group (WB) Carbon Capture and Storage Trust Fund (CCS TF) was established in 2009 to support CO2 capture and storage (CCS) capacity and knowledge building in developing countries11The WB CCS TF donors include the governments of the United Kingdom and Norway, and the Global Carbon Capture and Storage Institute. This support is intended to create opportunities for the WB partner countries to explore their CCS potential and, if appropriate, to facilitate the inclusion of CCS options into their low-CO2 growth strategies and policies. Nine countries were selected in Phase 1 of the CCS TF support including South Africa.CCS TF Phase 1 support for CCS in South Africa included an allocation of US$ 1.35 million and had the objective of supporting the Government of South Africa by undertaking three specific studies:1.The development of a regulatory framework for CCS in South Africa2.A techno-economic review of CCS implementation in South Africa3.The development of a national and local public engagement plan for the South African Pilot CO2 Storage ProjectThe South African Department of Energy (DoE) and the South African National Energy Development Institute (SANEDI) were the beneficiaries and counterparts for these WB supported CCS studies. The South Africa CCS Roadmap, developed by SANEDI and released in 2010, defined several milestones to understand and develop the potential for CCS in South Africa. The implementation of the Pilot Carbon Storage Project (PCSP) is planned as the next milestone in the Roadmap to be completed between 2017 and 2021. The PCSP scope includes the transport, geological storage and monitoring of between 10,000 and 50,000tCO2, sourced from an industrial facility.The WB selected the Environmental Resources Management Southern Africa (ERM) as the lead consultant for the legal and regulatory assessment, undertaken in association with Carbon Counts and IMBEWU Sustainability Legal Specialists. The aim of the legal and regulatory assessment study was to review the existing legislation and regulation in South Africa to identify gaps and barriers for the authorisation and regulation of the PCSP with the view to informing the development of a CCS regulatory framework. The ERM consortium worked closely with the South African DoE and the Inter-Departmental CCS Task Team (IDTT), which was established in 2011 to inform, coordinate and promote the development of CCS in South Africa. The study recommended the following four options for regulating CCS in South Africa, using the existing regulations or a new regulatory framework:1.The National Environmental Management: Waste Act (NEM: Waste Act).2.The National Environmental Management Act (NEMA)3.The NEMA and the Mineral Petroleum Resource Development Act (MPRDA).4.The development of stand-alone legislation, specifically for the purposes of regulating CCS.The aim of the second study was to develop a detailed technical and economic analysis for large-scale development and deployment of CCS across South Africa's industrial installations by 2050. The WB lead consultant for the technical and economic analysis study, Parsons Brinckerhoff, reviewed and recorded CO2 sources and CO2 storage locations (as identified in the Atlas on Geological Storage of CO2in South Africa) and conducted the subsequent analysis of how these sources and sink can be connected in the most cost effective way under varying roll-out scenarios. The analysis found that large-scale CCS could be deployed in South Africa at a levelized average cost of ZAR 422 per metric ton of CO2 across all industrial sectors. The study found that the capital up-front costs of this large-scale deployment were significant but could be mitigated by taking a phased approach to CO2 capture deployment.The aim of the public engagement study was to develop a comprehensive plan for raising public awareness, informing and engaging with various public stakeholders in South Africa, both at the national and local levels, on the CCS technology deployment and respective management of potential risk. The public engagement took into account international best practice as well as South African specific considerations. Specific aspects, addressed the study, included:•Raising awareness of CCS as a possible climate change mitigation measure;•Helping to develop an understanding of key concepts in the CCS technology, subsurface storage and key issues;•Outlining the benefits and potential risks of demonstration and deployment of the CCS technology in South Africa; and•Placing CCS in the context of South African climate change mitigation, energy production and use, coal use, resource development, job creation, amongst others.The WB selected SRK Consulting South Africa as the lead consultant for the study, in association with Finley-Greenberg, and the World Resources Institute (WRI), prepared National and Local Stakeholder Engagement Plans, which recommended that stakeholder engagement commence at the national level with government officials before proceeding in turn to the provincial, district municipal, and local municipal levels.Following the conclusion of these studies a number of lessons were learned with regard to: the involvement of relevant stakeholders in the scoping and delivery of studies; and, how results are communicated to maximise the impact of the work.