Cloud-topped Marine Boundary Layer Research Articles

Volatile organic compounds measured by proton transfer reaction mass spectrometry over the complex terrain of Quintero Bay, Central Chile

This research provides new evidence regarding the different kinds of air quality episodes, and their underlying mechanisms, that frequently impact the urban area of Quintero Bay in Central Chile, which is located along complex coastal terrain and is surrounded by industries. The monitoring campaign was carried out in January 2022 and encompassed two distinctive meteorological regimes. The first part of the month was dominated by a coastal low centered to the south of Quintero, which resulted in prevailing northerly flow (or weak southerlies) and a deep cloud-topped marine boundary layer. After a 2–3-day transition, the latter collapsed, and a clear-sky regime ensued, which was characterized by a shallow boundary layer and strong southerly winds during the daytime that lasted until the end of the campaign.By using proton transfer reaction time of flight mass spectrometry (PTR–TOF–MS) at a high temporal resolution (1 s), we measured high levels of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) during air quality episodes in real time. The episodes detected were associated with different prevailing meteorological regimes, suggesting that different point sources were involved. In the first episode, propene/cyclopropane, butenes, benzene, toluene and ethylbenzene/xylenes were associated with north and northwesterly weak winds. Complaints associated with hydrocarbon odor were reported. The pollution originated from industrial and petrochemical units located to the north of Quintero, which transport and store natural gas, liquified petroleum gas and oil. The second episode was linked to an oil refinery located south of our measurement site. In this case, high levels of phenol, furan and cresols occurred under strong southwesterly winds. During this event, headaches and dizziness were reported. By contrast, the levels of other aromatic compounds (benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene/xylenes) were lower than in the first air pollution episode.

Sampling error in aircraft flux measurements based on a high-resolution large eddy simulation of the marine boundary layer

Abstract. A high-resolution (1.25 m) large eddy simulation (LES) of the nocturnal cloud-topped marine boundary layer is used to evaluate random error as a function of continuous track length L for virtual aircraft measurements of turbulent fluxes of sensible heat, latent heat, and horizontal momentum. Results are compared with the widely used formula of Lenschow and Stankov (1986). In support of these comparisons, the relevant integral length scales and correlations are evaluated and documented. It is shown that for heights up to approximately 100 m (z/zi=0.12), the length scales are accurately predicted by empirical expressions of the form If=Azb. The Lenschow and Stankov expression is found to be remarkably accurate at predicting the random error for shorter (7–10 km) flight tracks, but the empirically determined errors decay more rapidly with L than the L-1/2 relationship predicted from theory. Consistent with earlier findings, required track lengths to obtain useful precision increase sharply with altitude. In addition, an examination is undertaken of the role of uncertainties in empirically determined integral length scales and correlations in flux uncertainties as well as of the flux errors associated with crosswind and along-wind flight tracks. It is found that for 7.2 km flight tracks, flux errors are improved by factor of approximately 1.5 to 2 for most variables by making measurements in the crosswind direction.

Comparison of a Spectral Microphysics and a Two-Moment Cloud Scheme: Numerical Simulations of the Cloud-Topped Marine Boundary Layer

A comparison between the spectral microphysics cloud scheme (MiStra) and the parametrized cloud scheme (PaStra) is presented. The main feature of MiStra consists of the treatment of aerosol particles, cloud droplets, and drizzle particles in a joint two-dimensional particle size distribution, whereas PaStra consists of a two-moment scheme for cloud droplets combined with a one-moment scheme for drizzle. Both cloud schemes have been implemented in a single-column model of the cloud-topped marine boundary layer. Numerical sensitivity studies are presented demonstrating that MiStra is capable of simulating in great detail the major cloud microphysical processes occurring in low-level stratiform clouds. While in MiStra no empirical parameter is available to tune the model, the empirical model parameters of PaStra have been tuned by means of the MiStra model results. By comparing the numerical results of PaStra with those of MiStra it is found that PaStra simulates the overall characteristics of the cloud-topped marine boundary layer quite well. At the same time, however, the effects of single cloud microphysical processes differ substantially from those of MiStra. Finally, it is shown that even in PaStra the inclusion of all major cloud microphysical processes is mandatory in order to obtain appropriate results.

Episodes of Warm‐Air Advection Causing Cloud‐Surface Decoupling During the MARCUS

AbstractIt has been known for decades that advection of a cloud‐topped marine boundary layer (CTBL) over warmer sea surface causes the stratification (or decoupling) of the CTBL via the entrainment feedback, a mechanism commonly known as “deepening‐warming” decoupling that is typical in subtropics. This study focuses on the opposite direction of advection, that is, low‐level warm air advection (LLWAA), and its impacts on the decoupling degree of a CTBL. Our hypothesis is that LLWAA stabilizes a CTBL, causing a decoupling of the CTBL. It is tested for three LLWAA episodes observed during the Measurements of Aerosols, Radiation, and CloUds over the Southern Ocean (MARCUS) field campaign between the Hobart (43°S, 147°E), Australia, and several Antarctic coast stations. By synthesizing the shipborne measurements of CTBL structure, Himawari‐8 satellite imagery of cloud fields, and reanalysis of meteorological field, four common characteristics of CTBLs under the LLWAA are found: (1) CTBLs are highly stratified to the extent that penetrations of cumulus into main temperature inversions, which are common for subtropical decoupled CTBLs, do not exist; (2) sea surface temperature is 1–2 K lower than the near‐surface air temperature; (3) clouds manifest stratiform with lifetime as long as several tens of hours; and (4) they locate in warm sectors of middle‐latitude cyclones. Possible mechanisms for the maintenance of decoupled clouds under LLWAA are discussed in terms of dynamic and thermodynamic factors. Lapse rates of the decoupled CTBLs are markedly lower than those commonly used for passive satellite estimation of cloud top heights.

Marine boundary layer over the subtropical southeast Pacific during VOCALS-REx – Part 1: Mean structure and diurnal cycle

Abstract. Atmospheric subsidence over the subtropical southeast Pacific (SEP) leads to a low-level anticyclonic circulation, a cool sea surface and a cloud-topped marine boundary layer (MBL). Observations in this region from a major field campaign during October and November 2008, the VOCALS Regional Experiment, provide ample data to characterize the lower atmospheric features over the SEP. The observations are also useful to test the ability of an area-limited, high-resolution atmospheric model to simulate the SEP conditions. Observations and model-results (where appropriate) improve the characterization of the mean state (Part 1) and variability (Part 2) of the lower troposphere including circulation, MBL characteristics and the upsidence wave. Along 20° S the MBL is generally deeper offshore (1600 m at 85° W) but there is also considerable variability. MBL depth and variability decrease towards the coast and maximum inversion strength is detected between 74–76° W. Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) simulations underestimate MBL height the most near the coast but improve offshore. Southeasterly trades prevail within the MBL although the wind speed decreases toward the coast. Above the MBL along the coast of Chile, flow is northerly, has a maximum at 3 km, and extends westward to ~74° W, apparently due to the mechanical blocking exerted by the Andes upon the westerly flow aloft. Mean MBL features along northern Chile (18–25° S) are remarkably similar (e.g., MBL depth just below 1 km) in spite of different SST. Observed diurnal cycles of the temperature at the coast and further offshore exhibit a number of conspicuous features that are consistent with the southwestward propagation of an upsidence wave initiated during late evening along the south Peru coast. Furthermore, the passage of the vertical motion results in either constructive or deconstructive interference with the radiatively-forced diurnal cycle of MBL depth. Interference is clearly seen in the soundings at Iquique which are driven by a strong upsidence wave contrary to the radiation-driven cycle, leading to a diurnal cycle opposite of the other sites. Because WRF simulations have a lower MBL height, the speed of the simulated gravity wave is slower than observations and accounts for most of the discrepancy between observed and simulated phase speeds.

Factors influencing the mesoscale variations in marine stratocumulus albedo

Measurements of both horizontal gradients and vertical profiles of aerosols, cloud droplets and thermodynamic parameters in the cloud topped marine boundary layer off of central California are presented. They suggest that, while aerosols can indeed modulate cloud albedo, other parameters such as sea surface temperature may similarly affect cloud albedo. Additionally, the impact of aerosols, through sedimentation and precipitation, on cloud optical depths and thus albedo is not always in accord with conventional expectations and can either enhance or decrease the albedo, depending on ambient conditions. Taken together, these results suggest that current estimates of indirect forcing by aerosols could be significantly in error.

Factors influencing the mesoscale variations in marine stratocumulus albedo

Measurements of both horizontal gradients and vertical profiles of aerosols, cloud droplets and thermodynamic parameters in the cloud topped marine boundary layer off of central California are presented. They suggest that, while aerosols can indeed modulate cloud albedo, other parameters such as sea surface temperature may similarly affect cloud albedo. Additionally, the impact of aerosols, through sedimentation and precipitation, on cloud optical depths and thus albedo is not always in accord with conventional expectations and can either enhance or decrease the albedo, depending on ambient conditions. Taken together, these results suggest that current estimates of indirect forcing by aerosols could be significantly in error.

A numerical model of the cloud‐topped marine boundary layer with explicit treatment of supersaturation–number concentration correlations

AbstractA numerical model of the cloud‐topped marine boundary layer is presented. The model, based on ensemble‐averaged conservation equations and containing detailed aerosol microphysics, differs from previous models in one major respect: the mean supersaturation–cloud drop number concentration correlation term, generally neglected in previous numerical mean cloud models, is parametrized using a traditional boundary‐layer flux‐gradient relationship. The present work highlights the importance of this correlation term and shows how a simple representation of this correlation can lead to dramatically different, and improved, simulations of cloud behaviour. Simulations are presented for a well‐studied marine boundary‐layer stratocumulus case. Inclusion of the supersaturation–cloud drop number concentration correlation leads to more physically realistic cloud drop spectra and cloud drop concentrations throughout the height of the cloud. Although the parametrization presented must be viewed as a first approximation, the crudeness of the approach should be seen as a justification and starting point for future work. Copyright © 2002 Royal Meteorological Society

Defining Marine Boundary Layer Clouds with a Prognostic Scheme

Abstract A prognostic cloud scheme is described based on Tiedtke's cloud parameterization for large-scale meteorological models, which uses prognostic equations for both mean liquid water content and cloud fraction. The present work parameterizes the relevant physical processes in the framework of convective circulation in the cloud-topped marine boundary layer. Both the steady-state and downstream solutions of the scheme are studied under the conditions of marine boundary layers. The results show that the predicted cloud fraction and mean liquid water content are strongly regulated by the strength of mass-flux detrainment and relative humidity in the environmental downdrafts in the upper part of the cloud layer. Thus, the intensity of the turbulent mixing is important in defining marine boundary layer clouds in the scheme. When coupled with a boundary-layer model that has a mass-flux representation of convective mixing, the cloud scheme gives reasonable downstream variations of marine boundary layer clou...

Study on clouds and marine atmospheric boundary layer

A set of remote sensing instruments of Peking University, which includes mainly a dual-channel(22.235GHz and 35.5GHz) microwave radiometer, a 8mm microwave and a 5mm microwave radiometer, has been developed for the Western North-Pacific Cloud-Radiation Experiment (WENPEX). The instruments were used to observe the cloud and marine atmospheric boundary-layer in the southwest sea area of Japan in winter time from 1989 to 1991. In the weather change process, the characteristics of the marine atmospheric boundary-layer and liquid water content in cloud of this area in winter time are studied from observation data. A one-dimensional mixed layer model is presented for the growth and evolution of a cloud-topped marine boundary-layer. The model is used to study in the WENPEX. The simulation results are in agreement with observation data, especially the integral water in cloud.

Numerical study of convective scale selection in a cloud-topped marine boundary layer

Numerical study of convective scale selection in a cloud-topped marine boundary layer

Radiation Effects in the Cloud-topped Marine Boundary Layer

This paper investigates the interaction between dynamics and infrared radiation in the cloud-topped marine boundary layer. A two dimensional Boussinesq moist model with a numerical technique (Fourier-Chebyshev spectral tau method) and resolution (10m) sufficient to simulate cloud top processes has been used. With the spectral tau method and the fourth-order Runge-Kutta time integration scheme, great computational efficiency are realized even with high model accuracy. Measurements suggest that the cloud-top radiative cooling is likely to exhibitsignificant horizontal as well as vertical variability which is principally governed by the variability of cloud liquid water. To investigate the impact of infrared cooling on boundary layer dynamics, numerical experiments on marine boundary layer convection under various idealized radiative forcings are performed. The results indicate that the dynamics of the cloud-topped marine boundary layer do not depend on the horizontal and the vertical distribution of the cooling so long as the cooling is confined to the turbulent boundary layer. The sensitivity of stratocumulus-topped boundary layer dynamics to the infrared cooling appears to be primarily in the vertical placement of the cooling relative to the turbulent cloud top region. This is due to the fact that the turbulent dynamical mixing time scale is smaller than the radiation build up time scale. Before radiation can cool a local region appreciably to influence the dynamics, the circulation inside the boundary layer has already transported the cloudy parcel out of the radiative cooling zone. Since the theory of radiation does not support the existence of infrared cooling in the capping inversion (zero cloud fraction or non-turbulent region), the spatial variability of cloud-top cooling needs to be considered only when the radiation build up time scale is comparable to the turbulent mixing time scale.

Factors influencing the marine boundary layer during a cold-air outbreak

The model for the cloud-topped marine boundary layer during a cold air outbreak developed by Stage and Businger (1981a) is used in conjunction with a test profile based on a fall outbreak episode over Lake Ontario to study factors influencing marine boundary-layer evolution. Sensitivity tests are done which show changes in layer evolution resulting from variation of wind speed, radiative sky temperature, water surface temperature, humidity of the shoreline sounding and divergence. The behavior of the layer in the presence of a region of cold-water upwelling near the shore is also investigated. It is found that the main effect of the upwelling region is to delay modification of the boundary-layer air.

A Model for Entrainment into a Cloud-Topped Marine Boundary Layer. Part I: Model Description and Application to a Cold-Air Outbreak Episode

Abstract A model is presented for the growth and evolution of a cloud-topped marine boundary layer. In this model the entrainment rate is determined from the turbulence kinetic energy (TKE) budget. It is assumed that the TKE budget can be partitioned according to whether each process produces TKE or converts it into potential energy, and that dissipation is proportional to production. This leads to an entrainment relationship which is considerably different than used in previous cloud-topped models. This model is used to study an episode of cold-air outbreak over Lake Ontario during the International Field Year for the Great Lakes (IFYGL). The model reproduces changes in potential temperature and dew point as the air crossed the lake and the associated time variation of these parameters at the down-wind shore with an accuracy of better than 1°C. Model and measured soundings closely match, especially with respect to the presence and location of such features as cloud layers. Depth of the mixed layer also w...

A Model for Entrainment into a Cloud-Topped Marine Boundary Layer. Pad II: Discussion of Model Behavior and Comparison with Other Models

Abstract The model for the cloud-topped marine boundary layer presented by Stage and Businger (1981) is discussed and compared with previous models. Our model gives a considerably different interpretation of the energetics of the layer and indicates that a much higher fraction (20%) of the layer turbulence kinetic energy production is available to drive entrainment than previously supposed. In a test case, the Lilly (1968) minimum entrainment model gives entrainment rates similar to ours; however, this model is based on physically unrealistic assumptions about layer energetics. It is noted that two soundings from the International Field Year for the Great Lakes (IFYGL) exhibit behavior not allowed by Deardorff’s (1976) model. In these cases our model gives a good fit to the data and Deardorff’s model predicted a boundary layer much deeper than observed. The depth of the layer of radiative cooling at cloud top is shown to be important only if it is a significant fraction of the mixed-layer depth zB. Layer ...

Comparison of Structure Parameter Scaling Expressions with Turbulence Closure Model Predictions

Abstract The convective boundary-layer scaling expressions presented by Wyngaard and LeMone (1980) are compared with predictions from a turbulence closure model. We first examine a model experiment involving a clear-air, convectively driven boundary layer overland. The model results agree well with scaling expressions and observations in the lower boundary layer and near the inversion. In the mid-boundary layer region, however, the closure model underestimates the temperature structure parameter CT2 and overestimates the humidity structure parameter Cq2. A cloud-topped marine boundary layer is examined in a second experiment which uses AMTEX data. Order-of-magnitude differences are found here between interfacial-layer scaling expressions and closure model predictions. Potential sources of this disagreement are discussed.