Cloud-level Winds Research Articles

A joint investigation of Saturn’s deep zonal flow via its gravitational field and Ohmic dissipation

ABSTRACT The Cassini Grand Finale provided a unique opportunity to study Saturn’s deep zonal flow. In this paper, we present a comprehensive deep zonal flow model for Saturn using a joint inversion of observed gravity and zonal flow-induced Ohmic dissipation in the semi-conducting region, under the assumption that the planet’s cloud-level wind is limited to a shallow weather layer. Our model unveils a strong equatorially symmetric zonal flow (O(100) m s−1) and a weaker antisymmetric zonal flow (O(1) m s−1) beneath the cloud-level winds. Furthermore, we show that the maximum depth of the deep zonal flow is around 7800 km, surpassing previous results derived from gravity alone and with the assumption that the rapid cloud-level winds extend deep into the planet’s interior. The meridional profile of the deep zonal flow differs significantly from the cloud-level zonal winds and predicts a strong westward zonal flow in the region with latitude around ±23°, where the observed cloud-top winds remain eastward. We also demonstrate that the zonal flow inside and outside the tangent cylinder exhibits significant differences in speed and scale. Moreover, our findings suggest that the coupling between the deep zonal flow and cloud-level winds varies across latitudes, with the shallow-wind model applicable to polar regions within the tangent cylinder and the deep-wind model more relevant to equatorial regions outside the tangent cylinder. Our findings highlight the importance of accounting for the planet’s deep zonal flow in future studies of Saturn’s atmospheric dynamics.

Saturn's Seismic Rotation Revisited

Normal mode seismology is a promising means of measuring rotation in gas giant interiors, and ring seismology presents a singular opportunity to do so at Saturn. We calculate Saturn’s normal modes of oscillation and zonal gravity field, using nonperturbative methods for normal modes in the rigidly rotating approximation, and perturbative methods for the shifts that Saturn’s deep winds induce in the mode frequencies and zonal gravity harmonics. The latter are calculated by solving the thermogravitational wind equation in an oblate geometry. Comparing many such models to gravity data and the frequencies of ring patterns excited by Saturn’s normal modes, we use statistical methods to estimate that Saturn’s cloud-level winds extend inward along cylinders before decaying at a depth 0.125–0.138 times Saturn’s equatorial radius, or 7530–8320 km, consistent with analyses of Cassini’s gravity and magnetic field data. The seismology is especially useful for pinning down Saturn’s poorly constrained deep rotation period, which we estimate at 2π/ΩS = 634.7 minutes (median) with a 5/95% quantile range of 633.8–635.5 minutes. Outstanding residuals in mode frequencies at low angular degree suggest a more complicated deep interior than has been considered to date. Smaller but still significant residuals at high angular degrees also show that our picture for the thermal, composition, and/or rotation profile in Saturn’s envelope is not yet complete.

Combined magnetic and gravity measurements probe the deep zonal flows of the gas giants

ABSTRACT During the past few years, both the Cassini mission at Saturn and the Juno mission at Jupiter provided measurements with unprecedented accuracy of the gravity and magnetic fields of the two gas giants. Using the gravity measurements, it was found that the strong zonal flows observed at the cloud level of the gas giants are likely to extend thousands of kilometres deep into the planetary interior. However, the gravity measurements alone, which are by definition an integrative measure of mass, cannot constrain with high certainty the exact vertical structure of the flow. Taking into account the recent Cassini magnetic field measurements of Saturn, and past secular variations of Jupiter’s magnetic field, we obtain an additional physical constraint on the vertical decay profile of the observed zonal flows on these planets. Our combined gravity–magnetic analysis reveals that the cloud-level winds on Saturn (Jupiter) extend with very little decay, i.e. barotropically, down to a depth of around 7000 km (2000 km) and then decay rapidly in the semiconducting region, so that within the next 1000 km (600 km) their value reduces to about 1 per cent of that at the cloud level. These results indicate that there is no significant mechanism acting to decay the flow in the outer neutral region, and that the interaction with the magnetic field in the semiconducting region might play a central role in the decay of the flows.

Origin of Jupiter’s cloud-level zonal winds remains a puzzle even after Juno

How far Jupiter's cloud-level zonal winds penetrate into its interior, a question related to the origin of the winds, has long been a major puzzle about Jupiter. There exist two different views: the shallow scenario in which the cloud-level winds are confined within the thin weather layer at cloud top and the deep scenario in which the cloud-level winds manifest thermal convection in the deep interior. We interpret, using two different models corresponding to the two scenarios, the high-precision measurements of Jupiter's equatorially antisymmetric gravitational field by the Juno spacecraft. We demonstrate, based on the thermal-gravitational wind equation, that both the shallow and deep cloud-level winds models are capable of explaining the measured odd gravitational coefficients within the measured uncertainties, reflecting the nonunique nature of the gravity inverse problem. We conclude that the high-precision Juno gravity measurements cannot provide an answer to the long-standing question about the origin of Jupiter's cloud-level zonal winds.

Saturn’s gravitational field induced by its equatorially antisymmetric zonal winds

The cloud-level zonal winds of Saturn are marked by a substantial equatorially antisymmetric component with a speed of about 50ms−1 which, if they are sufficiently deep, can produce measurable odd zonal gravitational coefficients ΔJ2k+1, k = 1, 2, 3, 4. This study, based on solutions of the thermal-gravitational wind equation, provides a theoretical basis for interpreting the odd gravitational coefficients of Saturn in terms of its equatorially antisymmetric zonal flow. We adopt a Saturnian model comprising an ice-rock core, a metallic dynamo region and an outer molecular envelope. We use an equatorially antisymmetric zonal flow that is parameterized, confined in the molecular envelope and satisfies the solvability condition required for the thermal-gravitational wind equation. The structure and amplitude of the zonal flow at the cloud level are chosen to be consistent with observations of Saturn. We calculate the odd zonal gravitational coefficients ΔJ2k+1, k = 1, 2, 3, 4 by regarding the depth of the equatorially antisymmetric winds as a parameter. It is found that ΔJ3 is −4.197 × 10−8 if the zonal winds extend about 13 000 km downward from the cloud tops while it is −0.765 × 10−8 if the depth is about 4000 km. The depth/profile of the equatorially antisymmetric zonal winds can eventually be estimated when the high-precision measurements of the Cassini Grand Finale become available.

The effect of the equatorially symmetric zonal winds of Saturn on its gravitational field

The penetration depth of Saturn’s cloud-level winds into its interior is unknown. A possible way of estimating the depth is through measurement of the effect of the winds on the planet’s gravitational field. We use a self-consistent perturbation approach to study how the equatorially symmetric zonal winds of Saturn contribute to its gravitational field. An important advantage of this approach is that the variation of its gravitational field solely caused by the winds can be isolated and identified because the leading-order problem accounts exactly for rotational distortion, thereby determining the irregular shape and internal structure of the hydrostatic Saturn. We assume that (i) the zonal winds are maintained by thermal convection in the form of non-axisymmetric columnar rolls and (ii) the internal structure of the winds, because of the Taylor-Proundman theorem, can be uniquely determined by the observed cloud-level winds. We calculate both the variation ΔJn, n = 2, 4, 6 … of the axisymmetric gravitational coefficients Jn caused by the zonal winds and the non-axisymmetric gravitational coefficients ΔJnm produced by the columnar rolls, where m is the azimuthal wavenumber of the rolls. We consider three different cases characterized by the penetration depth 0.36, RS, 0.2, RS and 0.1, RS, where RS is the equatorial radius of Saturn at the 1-bar pressure level. We find that the high-degree gravitational coefficient (J12 + ΔJ12) is dominated, in all the three cases, by the effect of the zonal flow with |ΔJ12/J12| > 100% and that the size of the non-axisymmetric coefficients ΔJmn directly reflects the depth and scale of the flow taking place in the Saturnian interior.

On the interpretation of the equatorially antisymmetric Jovian gravitational field

Since the odd zonal gravitational coefficients of Jupiter are nearly unaffected by the planet's rotational distortion, an effective way of estimating the internal structure of the equatorially antisymmetric Jovian winds is to measure the odd coefficients induced by their equatorially antisymmetric component and then apply a mathematical theory to ‘invert’ them. The thermal-gravitational wind equation (TGWE) provides this theoretical basis for interpretation. Here, we show that the kernel term of the TGWE requires that its solutions satisfy a solvability condition. The thermal wind equation is a diagnostic relation that generates a ‘solution’ for any zonal wind profile, but that ‘solution’ does not necessarily satisfy the solvability condition required for the TGWE. We develop a new approach to solving the TGWE that respects the solvability condition. We then calculate the odd zonal gravitational coefficients of Jupiter using a profile of zonal winds that satisfies the solvability condition and is equatorially antisymmetric and consistent with the observed cloud-level winds of Jupiter. We also explain the subtle but profound difference between the TWE and the TGWE via an analogous inhomogeneous ordinary differential equation. The developed method can be readily extended for inversion of the data soon to be acquired by the Juno spacecraft.

Decoupling Jupiter’s deep and atmospheric flows using the upcoming Juno gravity measurements and a dynamical inverse model

Observations of the flow on Jupiter exists essentially only for the cloud-level, which is dominated by strong east-west jet-streams. These have been suggested to result from dynamics in a superficial thin weather-layer, or alternatively be a manifestation of deep interior cylindrical flows. However, it is possible that the observed wind is indeed superficial, yet there exists a completely decoupled deep flow. To date, all models linking the wind, via the induced density anomalies, to the gravity field, to be measured by Juno, consider only flow that is a projection of the observed cloud-level wind. Here we explore the possibility of complex wind dynamics that include both the shallow weather-layer wind, and a deep flow that is decoupled from the flow above it. The upper flow is based on the observed cloud-level flow and is set to decay with depth. The deep flow is constructed to produce cylindrical structures with variable width and magnitude, thus allowing for a wide range of possible scenarios for the unknown deep flow. The combined flow is then related to the density anomalies and gravitational moments via a dynamical model. An adjoint inverse model is used for optimizing the parameters controlling the setup of the deep and surface-bound flows, so that these flows can be reconstructed given a gravity field. We show that the model can be used for examination of various scenarios, including cases in which the deep flow is dominating over the surface wind, and discuss the uncertainties associated with the model solution. The flexibility of the adjoint method allows for a wide range of dynamical setups, so that when new observations and physical understanding will arise, these constraints could be easily implemented and used to better decipher Jupiter flow dynamics.

AN ADJOINT-BASED METHOD FOR THE INVERSION OF THE JUNO AND CASSINI GRAVITY MEASUREMENTS INTO WIND FIELDS

ABSTRACT During 2016–17, the Juno and Cassini spacecraft will both perform close eccentric orbits of Jupiter and Saturn, respectively, obtaining high-precision gravity measurements for these planets. These data will be used to estimate the depth of the observed surface flows on these planets. All models to date, relating the winds to the gravity field, have been in the forward direction, thus only allowing the calculation of the gravity field from given wind models. However, there is a need to do the inverse problem since the new observations will be of the gravity field. Here, an inverse dynamical model is developed to relate the expected measurable gravity field, to perturbations of the density and wind fields, and therefore to the observed cloud-level winds. In order to invert the gravity field into the 3D circulation, an adjoint model is constructed for the dynamical model, thus allowing backward integration. This tool is used for the examination of various scenarios, simulating cases in which the depth of the wind depends on latitude. We show that it is possible to use the gravity measurements to derive the depth of the winds, both on Jupiter and Saturn, also taking into account measurement errors. Calculating the solution uncertainties, we show that the wind depth can be determined more precisely in the low-to-mid-latitudes. In addition, the gravitational moments are found to be particularly sensitive to flows at the equatorial intermediate depths. Therefore, we expect that if deep winds exist on these planets they will have a measurable signature by Juno and Cassini.

Constraining the depth of Saturn’s zonal winds by measuring thermal and gravitational signals

Based on straightforward dynamical considerations, we show how available and upcoming measurements of Saturn’s thermal and gravitational signals can be used to constrain the depth to which its zonal winds penetrate. The dynamical considerations issue from the facts that Saturn has a strong intrinsic heat flux, rotates rapidly, and has negligible atmospheric viscosity. As a result, convective motions align with surfaces of constant specific angular momentum, which are, away from the equator, approximately cylinders concentric with the planet’s spin axis. Convective motions in the interior therefore tend to homogenize entropy in the direction of the spin axis, but not necessarily perpendicular to it. Using the assumption of interior entropy homogenization in the direction of the spin axis, we determine the zonal winds and their associated thermal and gravitational signals by combining thermal wind balance, the equation of state, the observed zonal winds at the cloud level, and estimates of the strength of the magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) drag that zonal winds experience in the deep interior.We find zonal winds likely extend deeply into Saturn, to a depth between about 0.63 and 0.83RS (with Saturn’s radius RS), or to pressures between 1.4 and 0.3Mbar. The equation of state of hydrogen constrains zonal winds with strengths similar to the cloud level winds to be confined within the outer few percent of Saturn’s radius, with substantially weaker winds below, irrespective of where in the range of plausible estimates Saturn’s imprecisely known rotation rate falls. Depending on the rotation rate and the precise depth to which zonal winds penetrate, we estimate that the meridional equator-to-pole temperature contrasts in thermal wind balance with the inferred zonal winds increase with depth and reach 1–2K at 1bar and 2–4K at 5bar. They would be much larger if the cutoff radii of the zonal winds were much shallower than we estimate, but thermal observations by the Cassini Composite Infrared Spectrometer (CIRS) already rule out very shallow flows: Zonal winds must extend deeper than 5000bar (0.965RS) because otherwise the associated equator-to-pole contrast would be inconsistent with Cassini CIRS retrievals of the temperature field.Upcoming Cassini gravitational measurements can further constrain the penetration depth of zonal winds, as gravitational zonal harmonics associated with deep zonal winds are much larger than those associated with shallow zonal winds. The even gravitational zonal harmonics associated with zonal winds that penetrate to megabar levels start to become distinguishable from the planetary solid body rotation at zonal harmonic degree n≳8. The low-order odd gravitational zonal harmonics, which do not depend on the planetary solid body rotation, will be detectable within likely Cassini measurement errors for cutoff radii rc≲0.98RS (≳1000 bar). Combining thermal and gravitational signals of the zonal winds, the penetration depths of the zonal winds relative to different rotation rates can thus be constrained.

Cloud level winds from the Venus Express Monitoring Camera imaging

Six years of continuous monitoring of Venus by European Space Agency’s Venus Express orbiter provides an opportunity to study dynamics of the atmosphere our neighbor planet. Venus Monitoring Camera (VMC) on-board the orbiter has acquired the longest and the most complete so far set of ultra violet images of Venus. These images enable a study the cloud level circulation by tracking motion of the cloud features. The highly elliptical polar orbit of Venus Express provides optimal conditions for observations of the Southern hemisphere at varying spatial resolution. Out of the 2300 orbits of Venus Express over which the images used in the study cover about 10 Venus years. Out of these, we tracked cloud features in images obtained in 127 orbits by a manual cloud tracking technique and by a digital correlation method in 576 orbits. Total number of wind vectors derived in this work is 45,600 for the manual tracking and 391,600 for the digital method. This allowed us to determine the mean circulation, its long-term and diurnal trends, orbit-to-orbit variations and periodicities. We also present the first results of tracking features in the VMC near-IR images. In low latitudes the mean zonal wind at cloud tops (67±2km following: Rossow, W.B., Del Genio, A.T., Eichler, T. [1990]. J. Atmos. Sci. 47, 2053–2084) is about 90m/s with a maximum of about 100m/s at 40–50°S. Poleward of 50°S the average zonal wind speed decreases with latitude. The corresponding atmospheric rotation period at cloud tops has a maximum of about 5days at equator, decreases to approximately 3days in middle latitudes and stays almost constant poleward from 50°S. The mean poleward meridional wind slowly increases from zero value at the equator to about 10m/s at 50°S and then decreases to zero at the pole. The error of an individual measurement is 7.5–30m/s. Wind speeds of 70–80m/s were derived from near-IR images at low latitudes. The VMC observations indicate a long term trend for the zonal wind speed at low latitudes to increase from 85m/s in the beginning of the mission to 110m/s by the middle of 2012. VMC UV observations also showed significant short term variations of the mean flow. The velocity difference between consecutive orbits in the region of mid-latitude jet could reach 30m/s that likely indicates vacillation of the mean flow between jet-like regime and quasi-solid body rotation at mid-latitudes. Fourier analysis revealed periodicities in the zonal circulation at low latitudes. Within the equatorial region, up to 35°S, the zonal wind show an oscillation with a period of 4.1–5days (4.83days on average) that is close to the super-rotation period at the equator. The wave amplitude is 4–17m/s and decreases with latitude, a feature of the Kelvin wave. The VMC observations showed a clear diurnal signature. A minimum in the zonal speed was found close to the noon (11–14h) and maxima in the morning (8–9h) and in the evening (16–17h). The meridional component peaks in the early afternoon (13–15h) at around 50°S latitude. The minimum of the meridional component is located at low latitudes in the morning (8–11h). The horizontal divergence of the mean cloud motions associated with the diurnal pattern suggests upwelling motions in the morning at low latitudes and downwelling flow in the afternoon in the cold collar region.

Predictions of thermal and gravitational signals of Jupiter’s deep zonal winds

NASA’s Juno spacecraft will make microwave and gravity measurements of Jupiter. These can reveal information about the composition of Jupiter’s atmosphere and about the temperature and density structure below the visible clouds, which is in balance with the structure of the zonal winds. Here we show that there exist strong physical constraints on the structure of the off-equatorial deep zonal winds, and that these imply dynamical constraints on the thermal and gravitational signals Juno will measure. The constraints derive from the facts that Jupiter is rapidly rotating, has nearly inviscid flow, and has strong intrinsic heat fluxes emanating from the deep interior. Because of the strong intrinsic heat fluxes, Jupiter’s interior is convecting, but the rapid rotation and weak viscosity constrain the convective motions away from the equator to occur primarily along cylinders parallel to the planet’s spin axis. As a consequence, convection is expected to approximately homogenize entropy along the spin axis, thereby adjusting the interior to a convectively and inertially nearly neutral state. In this state, entropy gradients perpendicular to the spin axis are constant but generally not zero on cylinders concentric with the spin axis. Additionally, thermal wind balance relates entropy gradients perpendicular to the spin axis to the zonal wind shear between the observed cloud-level winds and winds in the deep interior (pressures of order 106bar), which must be much weaker because otherwise the Ohmic energy dissipation produced by the interaction of the zonal winds with the planetary magnetic field would exceed the planetary luminosity. Combining these physical constraints with thermal and electrical properties of the atmosphere, we obtain that zonal winds away from the equator likely extend deeply into Jupiter (to a depth between about 0.84RJ and 0.94RJ with Jupiter radius RJ) but have strengths similar to cloud level winds only within the outer few percent of Jupiter’s radius. Meridional equator-to-pole temperature contrasts in thermal wind balance with the zonal winds increase with depth and reach ∼1–2K at 50bar; they would reach O(10K) if the winds were shallowly confined, as has been proposed previously. Such temperature contrasts will be detectable by Juno’s microwave instrument and are expected to be much larger than those associated with variations in water vapor abundance. The associated gravitational signals of the zonal winds will also be detectable by Juno, but they will be more difficult to distinguish from those implied by other flow models with deep zonal flows. The combination of Juno’s gravity and microwave instruments should be able to distinguish deep flows (detectable gravitational signals) from shallow flows (detectable thermal signals), providing strong constraints on the penetration depth of substantial zonal winds.

Dynamics of Saturn’s great storm of 2010–2011 from Cassini ISS and RPWS

Saturn’s quasi-periodic planet-encircling storms are the largest convecting cumulus outbursts in the Solar System. The last eruption was in 1990 (Sánchez-Lavega, A. [1994]. Chaos 4, 341–353). A new eruption started in December 2010 and presented the first-ever opportunity to observe such episodic storms from a spacecraft in orbit around Saturn (Fischer, G. et al. [2011]. Nature 475, 75–77; Sánchez-Lavega, A. et al. [2011]. Nature 475, 71–74; Fletcher, L.N. et al. [2011]. Science 332, 1413). Here, we analyze images acquired with the Cassini Imaging Science Subsystem (ISS), which captured the storm’s birth, evolution, and demise. In studying the end of the convective activity, we also analyze the Saturn Electrostatic Discharge (SED) signals detected by the Radio and Plasma Wave Science (RPWS) instrument. The storm’s initial position coincided with that of a previously known feature called the String of Pearls (SoPs) at 33°N planetocentric latitude. Intense cumulus convection at the westernmost point of the storm formed a particularly bright “head” that drifted at −26.9±0.8ms−1 (negative denotes westward motion). On January 11, 2011, the size of the head was 9200km and up to 34,000km in the north–south and east–west dimensions, respectively. RPWS measurements show that the longitudinal extent of the lightning source expanded with the storm’s growth. The storm spawned the largest tropospheric vortex ever seen on Saturn. On January 11, 2011, the anticyclone was sized 11,000kmby12,000km in the north–south and east–west directions, respectively. Between January and September 2011, the vortex drifted at an average speed of −8.4ms−1. We detect anticyclonic circulation in the new vortex. The vortex’s size gradually decreased after its formation, and its central latitude shifted to the north. The storm’s head moved westward and encountered the new anticyclone from the east in June 2011. After the head–vortex collision, the RPWS instrument detected that the SED activities became intermittent and declined over ∼40days until the signals became undetectable in early August. In late August, the SED radio signals resurged for 9days. The storm left a vast dark area between 32°N and 38°N latitudes, surrounded by a highly disturbed region that resembles the mid-latitudes of Jupiter. Using ISS images, we also made cloud-tracking wind measurements that reveal differences in the cloud-level zonal wind profiles before and after the storm.

Constraints on Saturn’s tropospheric general circulation from Cassini ISS images

An automated cloud tracking algorithm is applied to Cassini Imaging Science Subsystem high-resolution apoapsis images of Saturn from 2005 and 2007 and moderate resolution images from 2011 and 2012 to define the near-global distribution of zonal winds and eddy momentum fluxes at the middle troposphere cloud level and in the upper troposphere haze. Improvements in the tracking algorithm combined with the greater feature contrast in the northern hemisphere during the approach to spring equinox allow for better rejection of erroneous wind vectors, a more objective assessment at any latitude of the quality of the mean zonal wind, and a population of winds comparable in size to that available for the much higher contrast atmosphere of Jupiter. Zonal winds at cloud level changed little between 2005 and 2007 at all latitudes sampled. Upper troposphere zonal winds derived from methane band images are ∼10ms−1 weaker than cloud level winds in the cores of eastward jets and ∼5ms−1 stronger on either side of the jet core, i.e., eastward jets appear to broaden with increasing altitude. In westward jet regions winds are approximately the same at both altitudes. Lateral eddy momentum fluxes are directed into eastward jet cores, including the strong equatorial jet, and away from westward jet cores and weaken with increasing altitude on the flanks of the eastward jets, consistent with the upward broadening of these jets. The conversion rate of eddy to mean zonal kinetic energy at the visible cloud level is larger in eastward jet regions (5.2×10−5m2s−3) and smaller in westward jet regions (1.6×10−5m2s−3) than the global mean value (4.1×10−5m2s−3). Overall the results are consistent with theories that suggest that the jets and the overturning meridional circulation at cloud level on Saturn are maintained at least in part by eddies due to instabilities of the large-scale flow near and/or below the cloud level.

Gravitational signature of Jupiter's internal dynamics

Telescopic observations and space missions to Jupiter have provided vast information about Jupiter's cloud level winds, but the depth to which these winds penetrate has remained an ongoing mystery. Scheduled to be launched in 2011, the Jupiter orbiter Juno will make high‐resolution observations of Jupiter's gravity field. In this paper we show that these measurements are sensitive to the depth of the internal winds. We use dynamical models ranging from an idealized thermal wind balance analysis, using the observed cloud‐top winds, to a full general circulation model (GCM). We relate the depth of the dynamics to the external gravity spectrum for different internal wind structure scenarios. In particular, we predict that substantial Jovian winds below a depth of 500 km would lead to detectable (milligal‐level) gravity anomalies with respect to the expected gravity for a planet in solid body rotation.

Using ground-based stereo cameras to derive cloud-level wind fields

Upper-level wind fields are obtained by tracking the motion of cloud features as seen in calibrated ground-based stereo cameras. By tracking many cloud features, it is possible to obtain horizontal wind speed and direction over a cone area throughout the troposphere. Preliminary measurements were made at the Mauna Loa Observatory, and resulting wind measurements are compared with winds from the Hilo, Hawaii radiosondes.

Effect of procedures utilized for nuclear transfer on bovine oocyte activation

NASA’s Juno spacecraft will make microwave and gravity measurements of Jupiter. These can reveal information about the composition of Jupiter’s atmosphere and about the temperature and density structure below the visible clouds, which is in balance with the structure of the zonal winds. Here we show that there exist strong physical constraints on the structure of the off-equatorial deep zonal winds, and that these imply dynamical constraints on the thermal and gravitational signals Juno will measure. The constraints derive from the facts that Jupiter is rapidly rotating, has nearly inviscid flow, and has strong intrinsic heat fluxes emanating from the deep interior. Because of the strong intrinsic heat fluxes, Jupiter’s interior is convecting, but the rapid rotation and weak viscosity constrain the convective motions away from the equator to occur primarily along cylinders parallel to the planet’s spin axis. As a consequence, convection is expected to approximately homogenize entropy along the spin axis, thereby adjusting the interior to a convectively and inertially nearly neutral state. In this state, entropy gradients perpendicular to the spin axis are constant but generally not zero on cylinders concentric with the spin axis. Additionally, thermal wind balance relates entropy gradients perpendicular to the spin axis to the zonal wind shear between the observed cloud-level winds and winds in the deep interior (pressures of order 106 bar), which must be much weaker because otherwise the Ohmic energy dissipation produced by the interaction of the zonal winds with the planetary magnetic field would exceed the planetary luminosity. Combining these physical constraints with thermal and electrical properties of the atmosphere, we obtain that zonal winds away from the equator likely extend deeply into Jupiter (to a depth between about 0.84RJ and 0.94RJ with Jupiter radius RJ) but have strengths similar to cloud level winds only within the outer few percent of Jupiter’s radius. Meridional equator-to-pole temperature contrasts in thermal wind balance with the zonal winds increase with depth and reach ∼1–2 K at 50 bar; they would reach O(10 K) if the winds were shallowly confined, as has been proposed previously. Such temperature contrasts will be detectable by Juno’s microwave instrument and are expected to be much larger than those associated with variations in water vapor abundance. The associated gravitational signals of the zonal winds will also be detectable by Juno, but they will be more difficult to distinguish from those implied by other flow models with deep zonal flows. The combination of Juno’s gravity and microwave instruments should be able to distinguish deep flows (detectable gravitational signals) from shallow flows (detectable thermal signals), providing strong constraints on the penetration depth of substantial zonal winds.

Survey of satellite meteorology

This paper reviews the developmental growth in the field of satellite meteorology. The evolution of space-based meteorological observations has been traced back to 1947 and its incremental growth in polar as well as geostationary orbits has been scanned, covering the efforts of all the nations, with a view to service the curiosity of multidisciplinary readership. As the meteorological satellites have also catered to disciplines other than meteorology, the overall applications potential has been discussed before discussing specific meteorology-oriented utilization of weather satellites. The synoptic utilization of weather satellite imagery, over a period of two decades, by the practising meteorologist has been illustrated. These satellites offer great potential for quantitative studies and realisation of these in our country needs converged, determined and dedicated efforts. To serve this cause the quantitative products have been discussed a little elaborately and cover the estimation of sea surface temperature, humidity and temperature profiles, cloud level winds, precipitation and thunderstorm growth parameter. The utility of weather satellites data in defence perations (specifically in the erosion estimation for advanced ballistics re-entry systems) has also been briefly mentioned. The paper also mentions future developments in space-based sensing of cloud physics parameters, atmospheric surface pressure estimation, winds estimation using Lidar and the availability of new operational sensors under the Advanced TIROS-N (ATN) series.

The onset of the summer monsoon during the FGGE 1979 experiment off the East African coast: A comparison of wind data collected by different means

During FGGE 1979, from March to July, an extensive oceanographic experiment with ships and moored stations was carried out in the Somali Current. The development of the monsoon winds off Somalia during the time of that experiment is described in a comparative analysis of standard ship wind observations, moored buoy wind measurements, low‐level cloud winds, and winds from land stations. The onset 1979 is found to be of the multiple type, with northward winds off Somalia beginning around May 5 but dying down into early June; the real onset of sustained high winds starts around June 10. Cloud level wind observation numbers off Somalia decrease drastically with the monsoon onset because of lack of clouds over the quickly developing cold upwelling areas. An intercomparison of cloud level and ship winds for the period May 16 to July 6 at five offshore points shows good agreement in directions but reduction of ship wind speeds against cloud level winds off northern Somalia after the onset, which may be explained by the increased vertical wind shear due to high air stability over the upwelled water and by geostrophic shear due to the strong gradients of sea surface temperature. A comparison of 3‐day averages of buoy winds measured at 3‐m height 30 km offshore, but still inland from the ship lane, with ship winds for the period March 3 to June 10 showed good agreement in directions but lower buoy wind speeds, which could partly be due to sensor height difference and partly due to horizontal wind shear towards the coast. Coastal stations and wind buoys near the coast are found not to be good indicators of the monsoon onset further out in the open ocean.