Closed Cup Flash Point Research Articles

Flash Point of Gel-Polymer Electrolytes: Effect of the Molecular Interaction between Nitrile (HNBR) and Carbonyl (PC)

Gel-polymer electrolytes are receiving increasing attention as they compromise between a good ionic conductivity (10-3S/cm) [1, 2] and good safety features. The solvent trapped into the polymeric matrix increases the ionic conductivity while the polymeric matrix enhances safety due to its mechanical strength repressing dendrite growth [3, 4]. Gel polymer electrolytes are almost universally presumed to be less flammable than current commercialize battery (organic liquid electrolyte) [5, 6]. However, there is no universal test to compare the flammability of a liquid and the flammability of a gel.Our work focuses on the flash point measurement of gel-polymer electrolytes. The flash point temperature is a standardized test and is one of the top experiments to measure flammability [7]. The Flash point temperature is well studied for liquid electrolytes [7, 8] but had never been conducted for gel-polymers. We developed a method to analyze the flash point of gel-polymer electrolytes by pairing the closed-cup flash point tester with a thermal imaging camera. This new apparatus was used it to analyze a promising system: HNBR with different grade of nitrile doped with PC. The goal is to find the relation between the flash point and the nitrile contains in the polymeric matrices.Our research sheds light on the effect of molecular interactions between the nitrile of HNBR and the carbonyl of PC on the flammability of the overall gel-polymer electrolyte with FT-IR. The study has also been conducted adding a lithium salt (LiTFSI) to be representative of real battery application. Agrawal, R.C. and G.P. Pandey, Solid polymer electrolytes: materials designing and all-solid-state battery applications: an overview. J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys., 2008. 41(22): p. 223001-223019.Cheng, X., et al., Gel Polymer Electrolytes for Electrochemical Energy Storage. Advanced Energy Materials, 2018. 8(7).Hassouna, J. and B. Scrosati, Review—Advances in Anode and Electrolyte Materials for the Progress of Lithium-Ion and beyond Lithium-Ion Batteries. Journal of The Electrochemical Society, 2015. 162 p. A2582-A2588.Ren, W., et al., Advanced gel polymer electrolytes for safe and durable lithium metal batteries: Challenges, strategies, and perspectives. Energy Storage Materials, 2021. 34: p. 515-535.Castillo, J., et al., Safe, Flexible, and High-Performing Gel-Polymer Electrolyte for Rechargeable Lithium Metal Batteries. Chemistry of Materials, 2021. 33(22): p. 8812-8821.Li, Q., et al., Progress in electrolytes for rechargeable Li-based batteries and beyond. Green Energy & Environment, 2016. 1(1): p. 18-42.Liu, X.S. and Z.Y. Liu, Research Progress on Flash Point Prediction. Journal of Chemical and Engineering Data, 2010. 55(9): p. 2943-2950.Catoire, L., S. Paulmier, and V. Naudet, Experimental determination and estimation of closed cup flash points of mixtures of flammable solvents. Process Safety Progress, 2006. 25(1): p. 33-39.

The flash point of elemental sulfur: Effect of heating rates, hydrogen sulfide, and hydrocarbons

Facilities for the storage and handling of liquid sulfur are designed to avoid fires to prevent (a) deflagration, (b) breaching of hot-liquid and (c) the emission of highly toxic sulfur dioxide. To aid design and operation, current literature reports a wide range of flash points from 160 to 207 °C. This work aims to help clarify why this wide variance in measurements exists and which values are more applicable for safety and vessel integrity. The effects of heating rate, dissolved hydrogen sulfide, and hydrocarbon impurities on the apparent flash point were studied using a Pensky-Martens closed cup flash point apparatus following the standardized procedure outlined in American Society for Testing and Materials test method D93-20. The heating rate significantly affected the sulfur flash point, where slower rates yielded consistent flash points of 207 ± 3 °C. Flash points as low as 167 °C were observed when using faster rates, including the American Society for Testing and Materials recommended heating rates. Freely dissolved hydrogen sulfide lowered the flash point to 175 °C for concentrations greater than 100 ppmw, irrespective of the amount of dissolved polysulfanes. No effect on the flash point was observed for decane or hexadecane impurities up to 333 and 512 ppmw, respectively.

Pengujian Flash Point pada Sampel Biosolar B-30 dan Pengujian Total Acid Number (TAN) pada Sampel Feedstock C PT “X” Laboratorium Fuel Terminal BBM Bandung Group-Ujung Berung

Flash Point is the lowest temperature of the fuel, where if the fuel is brought close to a fire, it will ignite easily. The sample used in the flash point test is biodiesel B-30, this flash point test method uses the ASTM D 93 standard by the Pensky-Martens closed cup flash point tool. Process variables that affect flash point testing are temperature, density and pressure. The results of the flash point test with the highest flash point value are sample 4 with a value of 65.0℃, while the results of the flash point test with the lowest flash point value are sample 1 with a value of 52.0. Total Acid Number (TAN) is a combination of weak and strong acids in fuel. The sample used in the Total Acid Number (TAN) test is diesel blending feedstock C, the Total Acid Number (TAN) test method uses the ASTM D 664 standard by the Automatic Potentiometric Titrator AT -710. The process variable that affects the Total Acid Number (TAN) test is the oxidation reaction. The results of the Total Acid Number (TAN) test, the lowest acid content is diesel + feedstock C 0.3% sample with a value of 0.05527 mg KOH/gr, while the highest acid content is diesel + feedstock C 0.2% sample. with a value of 0.06708 mg KOH/gr   Keywords: American Standard Testing and Material (ASTM), Blending Feedstock C, Biosolar B-30, Flash Point, Total                    Acid Number (TAN).

Influence of Storage Conditions, Sample Handling, Sample Preparation, and Repeated Analysis on the Measured Flash Point and Hydrocarbon Composition of Jet A

Chemical and physical properties of jet fuel can change during storage or transportation, potentially rendering the fuel unsafe or unsuitable for use. Thus, it is crucial that the chemical and physical properties determined for a jet fuel accurately represent its properties. The goal of this study was to determine how storage conditions, sample handling, sample preparation, and repeated analysis of a Jet A fuel affects its hydrocarbon composition and flash point. The former was determined via comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography with flame ionization detection (GC × GC/FID) and the latter via a Tag closed-cup flash point tester. The following experiments were performed to explore possible changes in the above properties: (1) storage for up to 24 weeks at room temperature in three different types of closed containers (mason jars, amber glass bottles, and F-style cans); (2) storage for up to 24 h in the same containers but with the container cap removed; (3) storage of samples prepared for GC × GC/FID analysis for 1–7 days at room temperature, in a refrigerator, or in a freezer prior to analysis; and finally, (4) repeated GCxGC/FID analysis of a given sample vial compared to analysis of several identically prepared sample vials just once. The effects of the choice of the signal-to-noise ratio (S/N) threshold on the precision of the GC × GC/FID measurements and the number of peaks detected in each chromatogram were examined. Further, the percentage of the peak areas included in quantitation when using different S/N thresholds was also investigated and an optimal S/N threshold value was determined. The hydrocarbon compositions and flash point values determined for the Jet A samples stored for up to 24 weeks in a similar container were very similar. However, a relationship was observed between the similarity of the flash point values and the hydrocarbon compositions and the type of capped storage container used. The flash point values and hydrocarbon compositions were most similar for the fuels stored in mason jars and least similar for the fuels stored in F-style cans. Furthermore, substantial differences were observed in the flash point values (increases of 1.6–5.6 °C after 24 hours) and hydrocarbon compositions (percentage decreases of 3.02–13.26% after 24 hours in the wt. % of the most volatile compounds) for the fuels stored in uncapped containers, especially mason jars. Only very minor changes were observed in the hydrocarbon composition when samples were prepared for GC × GC/FID analysis 1–7 days prior to analysis, regardless of the temperature or duration of storage. The number of injections made from each sample vial for GCxGC/FID analysis proved to influence the hydrocarbon composition as the weight percent (wt. %) of the most volatile hydrocarbons was reduced and the number of peaks with S/N values greater than the S/N threshold was increased with the number of injections.

Uncertainty Measurement of Closed Flash Point of Organic Heat Carrier

The closed flash point is an important indicator in the detection of organic heat carrier. In this paper, based on the Pensky-Martin flash point (closed) measurement method, the closed flash point of the organic heat carrier is measured with an automatic closed cup flash point meter. The factors that may affect the accuracy of the measurement result during the measurement process are analyzed, and the uncertainty is determined. Through the analysis of the established uncertainty component sources, the repeatability measurement of the organic heat carrier, the temperature sensor, the pressure sensor, and the numerical rounding based on the standard, the results of the closed flash point determination of the organic heat carrier are obtained. The synthetic uncertainty and the relative expanded uncertainty are evaluated to improve the reliability of the measurement results of the closed flash point of the organic heat carrier and provide a reference for the quality control of the organic heat carrier.

Flammability Characterization of a Polysulfide Based Ramjet Fuel

ABSTRACT This research program seeks to understand how the proportions of the fuel ingredients affect the ignition and decomposition characteristics of a novel solid ramjet fuel. The approach involves an ingredient mixture study that varies the proportions of three fuel components over a 10% range: epoxy cured polysulfide polymer, sulfur, and a perfluoropolyether. The primary objective of this work is to demonstrate the manipulation of the lower flammability limit and the thermal desorption species of the various formulations as a direct result of the doping fractions of sulfur and perfluoropolyether. Laboratory experiments include closed cup flash point testing and pyrolysis gas chromatography mass spectroscopy. The results show that, for the conditions investigated, both sulfur and perfluoropolyether act to decrease the lower flammability limit when added to polysulfide fuel. Low ignition temperature species including hydrogen sulfide are desorbed from sulfur-doped formulations. The mole fractions of diluent species decrease with the addition of either sulfur or perfluoropolyether. These experiments isolate the fundamental fuel properties by decoupling fuel behavior from combustor operating parameters such as geometry, chamber pressure, air temperature, and flux. Understanding relationships between the controlling mechanisms of solid fuel ramjet performance and fundamental fuel properties can aid in design prior to static firings.

Recycling of “Spent Engine Oil’’ using Activated Charcoal Derived from Anacardium Occidentale

Quality assurance parameters of spent engine oil obtained from the same automobile engine after 2, 4 and 6 months usage corresponding to a distance coverage of 2200, 3800 and 5570 mileage were analyzed along with the parameters of a brand new Society of Automobile Engineers (SAE) 10W – 40 engine oil (the same type as the spent oil) using Anton Paar SVM 3000 densitometer, Karl Fischer titrator, Pensky-Martens closed cup flash point tester and Normalab pour point cabinet. Results obtained showed that the parameters of the spent engine oils were not within acceptable limits as specified by the SAE and deviations increased with increase in time duration as well as distance covered by engine oil, this is contrary to the parameters of the brand new engine oil which were within specification. Activated charcoal obtained from the bark of Anacardium Occidentale tree was employed to recycle the spent engine oils used after 2, 4 and 6 months respectively and results showed that kinematic viscosities, density, flash point and fire point of the spent engine oil after 6 months of usage increased from: 110.2300 mmsec^-1, 0.8611 gcm^-3, 112.8000 ⁰C and 216.0000 ⁰C to 133.7200 mmsec^-1, 0.8955 gcm^-3, 225.0000 ⁰C and 322.000 ⁰C respectively, also the water content and pour point reduced from 0.8000 % and -8.0000 ⁰C to 0.0800 % and -15.0000 ⁰C respectively. Activated charcoal from the bark of Anacardium Occidentale tree is an anti-wear additive owing to its ability to increase the lubricity of the engine oil by increasing its kinematic viscosity and density, its ability to adsorb contaminants and volatile hydrocarbons in engine oil gives it the capacity to increase the flash and fire points of the engine oil. The ability of this activated charcoal to reduce the water content and pour point of the spent engine oil confirms its hydrophilicity and ability to maintain the flow properties of oil at elevated temperatures.

Assessment of the Quality of Diesel Fuel from Some Selected Filling Stations in Tarkwa, Ghana

Automobile fuel quality is becoming a subject of concern across the world and particularly in Ghana because of potential problems associated with poor quality fuel. Poor quality fuel leads to health and environmental problems, reduced performance and lifetime of engine and other components of an automobile. This paper presents the assessment of the quality of diesel fuel from selected filling stations in Tarkwa. Fifteen fuel samples were collected from Reseller Outlets (Gao Gao), Local Oil Marketing Companies (LOMCs) and International Oil Marketing Companies (IOMCs). Density, flashpoint and sulphur content of the sampled fuels were examined in the laboratory using hydrometer, Cleveland closed cup flash point tester and energy dispersive x-ray fluorescence spectrometer respectively. All the tests were conducted based on the American Standard for Testing Materials (ASTM) and the results were compared with the requirements of Ghana Standards Authority (GSA). The results from the tests indicated variations in the fuel properties among all the oil marketing companies. All the samples tested were found to be within the required density limit set by GSA. Also, about 81% of the fuels had the flashpoint within the required limit. In general, all the diesel samples had high sulphur content above the GSA limit of 0.005 wt% (50 ppm). It is recommended that; the Government of Ghana should ensure that all oil marketing companies operate within the acceptable sulphur content limit in Ghana and should also consider reducing the acceptable sulphur content to meet international standard in the near future.

Flash point of binary mixtures of chlorinated hydrocarbons with toluene and their predictability with existing mixing rule

AbstractThe flash points of binary mixtures of toluene with two chlorinated hydrocarbons (trichloroethylene and dichloromethane) at different concentrations were investigated to evaluate their predictability by existing mixing rules.Measurements were performed using both open and closed cup flash point testers highlighting complex ignition phenomena. Beyond a certain level of concentration in chlorinated compound, no proper flash is observed, in our test conditions when the flame is presented, but specific behaviors are observed that did not allow the definitive determination of a flash point. The observed phenomena can be attributed to the formation of halogenated radicals, presenting flame‐retardant behaviors, by decomposition of the chlorinated vapors at the contact of the flame.Existing mixing rules are based on the consideration of the vapor‐liquid equilibrium defining the amount of flammable vapors above the liquid surface. So, the application of such mixing rule failed predicting this specific phenomenon, more likely related to a specific reactivity problem.This work also confirms that the sole consideration of the flash point to investigate the flammability of such mixtures may lead to an underestimation of their actual hazard. Additional experimental tests should be conducted to investigate deeper the flammability of such liquid mixtures.

Modification of Pyrolytic Oil from Waste Tyres as a Promising Method for Light Fuel Production

Due to its high total sulphur content and other unfavourable properties, pyrolytic oil obtained as a result of tyres pyrolysis is not suitable for use as motor or heating fuel. Therefore, pyrolytic oil was hydrorefined. Hydrorefined oil was used as a component of light heating oil. A composition was prepared from 30 wt % hydrorefinate with 70 wt % Ekoterm Plus (a commercial oil). Unfortunately, the flash point temperature of the hydrorefinate was too low, and did not allow fuel compliant with the Polish standard PN-C-96024:2011 for L1 light heating oil to be obtained. Therefore, the fraction with boiling point below 180 °C was removed from the hydrorefinate. The residue, with a flash point of 74 °C and a sulphur content of 0.143 wt %, was mixed with Ekoterm Plus and fuels with a hydrorefinate fraction content of 30 and 50 wt % were prepared. The composition containing 30 wt % met the requirements for L1 oil in the whole range of tested parameters. Total sulphur content was 0.092 wt %, specific weight was 856 kg/m3 and closed cup flash point was 64 °C. However, the composition containing 50 wt % hydrorefinate did not meet the requirements regarding sulphur content and specific weight. Sulphur content, specific gravity, and flash point are the parameters limiting the possibility of using hydrorefined pyrolytic oil for composing light heating oils compliant with the mentioned standard.

Investigation on the fire hazard characteristics of ethanol–water mixture and Chinese liquor by a cone calorimeter

In this study, a series of ethanol–water mixture and Chinese liquor combustion experiments were conducted using an ISO5660-1 cone calorimeter and an automatic flash point tester. The main purpose was to obtain key fire parameter data, including the burning duration, mass loss rate, mass loss rate per unit area, heat release rate per unit area, CO and CO2 volume fraction, CO2/CO ratio and closed-cup flash point. At the same time, the experimental differences between Chinese liquor and ethanol–water mixture were analyzed. Also, the fire risk classification was discussed based on the code of GB 50016-2014. When the ethanol volume fraction of Chinese liquor is greater than 34.8 vol%, the fire risk is the most dangerous level, Class I. While the critical ethanol volume fraction of ethanol–water mixture is 38.9 vol%, it needs to pay more attention to the fire safety of Chinese liquor storage and usage when the ethanol volume fraction is generally from 30 to 65 vol%.

Fire hazard analysis of alcohol aqueous solution and Chinese liquor based on flash point

In this paper, a series of experiments were conducted to study the flash point of alcohol aqueous solution and Chinese liquor. The fire hazard of the experimental results was analysed based on the standard GB50160-2008 of China. The result shows open-cup method doesn’t suit to alcohol aqueous solution. On the other hand, the closed-cup method shows good applicability. There is a non-linear relationship between closed-cup flash point and alcohol volume concentration. And the prediction equation established in this paper shows good fitting to the flash point and fire hazard classification of Chinese liquor.

Comparison of the Physical and Chemical Properties, Performance, and Emissions of Ethyl Levulinate–Biodiesel–Diesel andn-Butanol–Biodiesel–Diesel Blends

In this study, fuel blends EL5-B10-D85 (5 vol % ethyl levulinate, 10 vol % biodiesel, and 85 vol % diesel), EL10-B15-D75, nBu5-B10-D85 (5 vol % n-butanol, 10 vol % biodiesel, and 85 vol % diesel), and nBu10-B15-D75 were compared on a horizontal, four-stroke, and single-cylinder engine. Ethyl levulinate–biodiesel–diesel (EL-B-D) blends and n-butanol–biodiesel–diesel (nBu-B-D) blends showed good miscibility. Generally, EL-B-D blends were more effective than nBu-B-D blends for decreasing kinematic viscosity, increasing closed cup flash point and oxygen content, although nBu-B-D blends were more effective than EL-B-D blends for decreasing cold filter plugging point and distillation. Overall, when used in a diesel engine, the fuel blends showed a slightly higher brake-specific fuel consumption (BSFC) than neat diesel, with EL-B-D being slightly higher than nB-B-D. EL-B-D blends were more effective than nB-B-D blends for reducing carbon monoxide (CO) emissions and smoke opacity, while nitrogen oxides (NOx) and ...

Synthesis of High‐Purity Imidazolium Tetrafluoroborates and Bis(oxalato)borates

The synthesis and purification of imidazolium-based ionic liquids (ILs) with boron-containing anions is reported. The scope was the optimization of the meta thesis reaction and on the purification of the synthesized ILs. It was possible to reduce the reaction and purification times, to avoid the use of acetonitrile as processing solvent, and to increase the yield compared to the known procedure for [BOB]- anion-containing ILs. Furthermore, to the best of our knowledge the flashpoints of the ILs could be determined for the first time by the continuously closed-cup flashpoint (CCCFP) method.

Effects of fuel properties on combustion and emissions of a direct injection diesel engine fueled with n-butanol-diesel blends

In this paper, the influence of the addition of n-butanol on fuel properties, combustion, and emission characteristics for a diesel engine was studied. Kinematic viscosity, lower heating value, closed-cup flash point, density, cetane number, and distillation were measured. The engine performance and emissions were also tested at nine loads of 1200 rpm. On this basis, numerical models of the diesel at 100% load for five fuels were established based on Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD). Next, CFD was used to evaluate the interactive influences among fuel properties and emissions quantitatively. The results demonstrated that kinematic viscosity, lower heating value, closed-cup flash point, density, and cetane number presented downward trends of varying degree with the increase in n-butanol content. Also, 10 vol. %, 50 vol. %, 90 vol. %, and 95 vol. % distillation temperatures decreased, and the range of decline decreased gradually. Hydrocarbon (HC), carbon monoxide (CO), and particulate matter emissions decreased, while nitrogen oxides (NOx) emissions and fuel consumption increased. In the combustion process, the regions of concentration for the formation of HC and CO were the gap and near the wall, and the production of HC emissions lagged behind that of CO emissions.

The Measurement and Prediction of Flash Point for Binary Mixtures {C<sub>1</sub> ~ C<sub>3</sub> Alcohols + <i>p</i>-Xylene} at 101.3 kPa

The flash point of flammable liquid mixture is very important parameter to characterize the ignition and explosion hazards. Flash points at 101.3 kPa were measured for several binary systems containing p-xylene, including {methanol + p-xylene}, {ethanol + p-xylene}, and {2-propanol and p-xylene}. Experimental measurements were performed using a SETA closed cup flash point tester. The measured flash points were compared with the predicted values calculated using the following activity coefficient models: Wilson, Non-Random Two Liquid (NRTL), and UNIversal QUAsi-Chemical (UNIQUAC). The results from the NRTL model provided the best comparison to the experimentally determined values.

The density, viscosity, vapor pressure, melting point and flash point of a liquid propellant: 1-(2-azidoethyl) pyrrolidine

1-(2-azidoethyl) pyrrolidine (AZEP) was prepared in our laboratory and its density and dynamic viscosity were measured over the temperature range from 273.15 K to 373.15 K. Its vapor pressure were determined in the range of (311.75–418.15) K using a dynamic method. The experimental data were analyzed by regression analysis using Origin 8.5 simulation software. The density data were fitted to a first order polynomial and the viscosity data were regressed to the Vogel- Fulcher-Tammann equation. The results of vapor pressure were fitted to Antoine equation and Clapeyron equation. What's more, melting point was measured using Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) and the melting point was −132.36 °C. Flash point was also determined using closed cup flash point tester and the value was 43.9 °C.

Flash point prediction of the binary and ternary systems using the different local composition activity coefficient models

The flash point is an important physical property which is used to estimate the fire hazard of a flammable liquid. The prediction of this property for single and multi-components systems allows one to avoid the occurrence of fire or explosion. The several models have been developed for prediction of the flash point of the multi-component mixtures so far. In the present work, the activity coefficient models of Wilson, NRTL, UNIQUAC, and NRTL-NRF are used through general flash-point model of Liaw et al. to predict the flash point of the binary and ternary systems. In most cases due to lack of experimental binary vapor–liquid equilibrium data, the experimental closed cup flash point data are used to predict the binary interaction parameters in the activity coefficient functions. Moreover, the binary interaction parameters are used to predict the flash point of the ternary systems. Finally, one can conclude the results of NRTL model is superior respect to the other local composition models.

Methanol, Ethanol, 2-Propanol 그리고 1-Butanol 이성분 혼합계에 대한 101.3 kPa에서의 인화점 측정 및 예측

Flash point is one of the most important variables used to characterize fire and explosion hazard of liquids. The lower flash point data were measured for the binary systems {methanol + 1-butanol}, {ethanol + 1-butanol} and {2-propanol + 1-butanol} at 101.3 kPa. Experiments were performed according to the standard test method (ASTM D 3278) using a SETA closed cup flash point tester. The measured flash points were compared with the predicted values calculated using the following activity coefficient models: Wilson, Non-Random Two Liquid (NRTL), and UNIversal QUAsiChemical (UNIQUAC). The measured FP data agreed well with the predicted values of Raoult's law, Wilson, NRTL and UNIQUAC models. The average absolute deviation between the predicted and measured lower FP was less than 1.14 K.

Flash point for binary mixtures of methylcyclohexane, n-heptane and p-xylene

Flammable substances are used in laboratories and industrial process. Flash point is one of the most important physical properties used to determine the potential for the characterize fire and explosion hazard of liquids. The flash point data at 101.3kPa were measured for the binary systems {methylcyclohexane (MCH)+n-heptane}, {MCH+p-xylene} and {n-heptane+p-xylene}. Experiments were performed according to the standard test method (ASTM D 3278) using a SETA closed cup flash point tester. The measured flash point data were compared with predicted values by activity coefficient models: Wilson, Non-Random Two Liquid and UNIversal QUAsiChemical.