Clock Reading Research Articles

Higher-order Allan variance for atomic clocks of arbitrary order: mathematical foundation

In this paper, we perform a time-domain analysis of the higher-order Allan variance for atomic clock models of arbitrary order. Adopting a standard atomic clock model where the time series of the clock reading deviation is expressed as a Wiener or integrated Wiener process, we define the higher-order Allan variance as the mean squared higher-order difference of the clock reading deviation. The main results of this paper are threefold. First, we prove that the higher-order difference operation of the clock reading deviation, which can be interpreted as a linear aggregation with binomial coefficients, is not only sufficient but also necessary for a resulting aggregated time series to be an independent and identically distributed Gaussian process. Second, we derive a complete analytical expression of the higher-order Allan variance, which consists of both time-dependent and time-independent terms. Third, we prove that the higher-order Allan variance is time-independent if and only if the order of difference operation is greater than or equal to the order of the atomic clock model.

Peningkatan Hasil Belajar Matematika pada Materi Waktu Menggunakan Alat Peraga Waginem pada Peserta Didik Kelas II

This research is motivied by the low mathematics learning outcomes in class II B MI Muhammadiyah Paremono, because the teacher uses the lecture method. The purpose of this study was to improve clock reading and writing skills with waginem props (morning and evening). The method used is Classroom Action Research (CAR) with the subject of class II B MI Muhammadiyah Paremono students for the 2021/2022 academic year. The final evaluation test instrument in this study was an evaluation test with 10 questions (essay). The research was conducted in two cycles. The indicators used are reading skills and writing skills. The results of the study show that waginem teaching aids can improve reading and writing skills so that student learning outcomes increase. This can be seen from the activities of the first cycle which showed the percentage of students' learning completeness was 75% with an average class of 87. Meanwhile in cycle II, the percentage of students' learning completeness was 100% with a class average of 96. Thus, the percentage of learning increased by 25%. Based on the results of the research conducted, it can be concluded that waginem teaching aids can improve mathematics learning outcomes in the time material at MI Muhammadiyah Paremono.

Time Argonaut: A Game to Practice Telling Time in English for Rural School Students

This article describes the design and development of an educational game for primary school students in a rural area of Sarawak. Students from rural Sarawak areas face several challenges contributing to demotivation when learning Mathematics and Sciences, including poor English proficiency, limited accessibility to the internet and gadgets, lack of genuine opportunities to practice English in real life, and teachers' English proficiency. In this study, a gamified learning module was designed to teach about time and tailored to students' needs. 25 Primary One students from a rural Baram, Sarawak school were recruited through crowdsourced convenience sampling for the study. Playday was conducted with the students to collect their feedback, and results were obtained from observation and feedback. Results from the playday showed that the students perceived that the game was fun and motivated them to learn about clock reading and time, engaging them to collaborate in learning and promoting teamwork in learning. The integration of gamification in teaching creates a meaningful learning process for students. It is recommended to examine the effectiveness of gamification at the secondary school level in future studies and explore the effectiveness of different game designs and game mechanisms

The Correlation between Residual Primitive Reflexes and Clock Reading Difficulties in School-Aged Children-A Pilot Study.

The aim of the pilot project was to research relationships between the occurrence and level of intensity of primitive reflexes in primary school children, the ability to read an analogue clock and to tell the time. A group of 28 children (14 girls and 14 boys) who attended Montessori Primary School was examined. In the first stage, participants were assessed for the presence of five primitive reflexes (PR): the asymmetrical tonic neck reflex (ATNR), symmetrical tonic neck reflex (STNR), spinal Galant reflex, tonic labyrinthine reflex (TLR) and Palmar grasp reflex. Romberg's test was employed to identify signs of difficulties with control of balance and/or proprioception. In the second stage, pupils underwent tests that challenged their ability to read a clock and calculate passing time. After summing up points obtained for all tests, a correlation coefficient was made from which the results were derived. There is a negative correlation between the ability to read an analogue clock and the continued presence of some primitive reflexes. Lower neuromotor maturity (higher points of PR) correlates with lower ability to read a clock. The highest correlations between difficulty with telling the time were found with persistence of the STNR, ATNR and Romberg's test.

Evaluation of Stability of Higher-Order Atomic Clocks by Higher-Order Allan Variance

In this paper, we analyze a generalized version of the Allan variance, referred to as a higher-order Allan variance, that can evaluate the frequency stability of multi-dimensional atomic clocks as a function of the measurement interval. It is known that the standard Allan variance, a measure to evaluate the frequency stability of atomic clocks, has a concern that its value for third-order atomic clocks, such as hydrogen maser, is dependent not only on the sampling interval of measurement data, but also on the time of measurement. To resolve this issue, this paper introduces the higher-order Allan variance defined for the higher-order difference of clock reading deviations. The main contribution of this paper is to mathematically prove that the higher-order Allan variance depends only on the sampling interval of clock reading deviations, for which a sufficiently high order of difference is considered. Furthermore, we present numerical simulation studying the numerical stability of the higher-order Allan variance computation for time series data of clock reading deviations.

Humans can monitor trial-based but not global timing errors: Evidence for relative judgements in temporal error monitoring.

Humans can monitor the magnitude and direction of their temporal errors in individual trials. Based on the predictions of our model of temporal error monitoring that rely on a relative comparison of internal clock readings, we predict that participants would monitor their timing errors in individual trials, but not the direction of their global timing errors without external feedback. One study has indeed found that accurate self-monitoring of average timing biases required external feedback with directional information. The current study investigates how different sources of feedback (i.e., internal or external) affect performance in the self-monitoring of average timing bias. Four groups of participants were tested in a temporal reproduction task. Participants in the self-evaluation condition evaluated the direction and size of their time reproduction errors in individual trials. In the accurate feedback condition, participants received explicit trial-based feedback regarding the direction of their error while participants in the partially accurate feedback condition received trial-based feedback according to the accuracy of short-long judgements of another participant in the self-evaluation condition. Participants in the control condition reproduced only the target duration without making any judgements regarding their reproduction performance or receiving any external feedback about it. Results showed that while participants accurately monitor timing errors in individual trials, in none of the experimental conditions were they more accurate than the chance level in terms of evaluating the direction of their average temporal bias. We discuss these results in terms of the temporal error monitoring model introduced by Akdoğan and Balcı. Thus, our findings suggest that external directional feedback does not have any informational value for global temporal bias judgements above and beyond internal self-monitoring.

Quantum clocks, gravitational time dilation, and quantum interference

A proper time observable for a quantum clock is introduced and it is found that the proper time read by one clock conditioned on another clock reading a different proper time obeys classical time dilation in accordance with special relativistic kinematical time dilation. Here, we extend this proposal to a weak gravitational field in order to investigate whether the weak equivalence principle holds for quantum matter. We find that for general quantum states the quantum time dilation in a weak gravitational field obeys a similar gravitational time dilation found in classical relativity. However, unlike the special relativistic case, the time dilation involves the external time (a background coordinate time at the observer on the Earth) as well as the proper times of two clocks. We also investigate a quantum time dilation effect induced by a clock in a superposition of wave packets localized in momentum space or in position space and propose the setup to observe the gravitational effect in the quantum interference effect in the time dilation.

The age differences and effect of mild cognitive impairment on perceptual-motor and executive functions.

It is unclear whether the decline in executive function (EF) and perceptual-motor function (PMF) found in older adults with mild cognitive impairment (MCI) is the result of a normal aging process or due to MCI. This study aimed to determine age-related and MCI-related cognitive impairments of the EF and PMF. The EF and PMF were investigated across four groups of 240 participants, 60 in each group, including early adult, middle adult, older adult, and older adult with probable MCI. The EF, working memory, inhibition, and cognitive flexibility were evaluated using digit span backward tasks, the Stroop color-word test, and the modified switching verbal fluency test, respectively. The PMF, visual perception, visuoconstructional reasoning, and perceptual-motor coordination were evaluated using the clock reading test, stick design test, and stick catching test, respectively. Group differences were found for all subdomains of EF and PMF (p < 0.05), except for perceptual-motor coordination, indicating that this subdomain could be maintained in older adults and was not affected by MCI. For the age difference, working memory, cognitive flexibility, visual perception, and visuoconstructional reasoning remained stable across middle adults and started to decline in older adults, while cognitive inhibition began to decrease in middle adults and it further declined in older adults. To control the confounding effect of education level, the results showed that only cognitive flexibility was further decreased in older adults with probable MCI compared to those without MCI (p < 0.05). In conclusion, cognitive inhibition decreased earlier in middle adults, whereas EF and PMF started to decline in older adults. Cognitive flexibility was the only MCI-sensitive cognitive function.

Tunneling time from spin fluctuations in Larmor clock

Tunneling time, time needed for a quantum particle to tunnel through a potential energy barrier, can be measured by a duration marker. One such marker is spin reorientation due to Larmor precession. With a weak magnetic field in z direction, the Larmor clock reads two times, τy and τz, for a potential energy barrier along the y axis. The problem is to determine the actual tunneling time (ATT). Büttiker defines τy2+τz2 to be the ATT. Steinberg and others, on the other hand, identify τy with the ATT. The Büttiker and Steinberg times are based on average spin components but in non-commuting spin system average of one component requires the other two to fluctuate. In the present work, we study the effects of spin fluctuations and show that the ATT can well be τy+τz2τy. We analyze the ATT candidates and reveal that the fluctuation-based ATT acts as a transmission time in all of the low-barrier, high-barrier, thick-barrier and classical dynamics limits. We extract this new ATT using the most recent experimental data by the Steinberg group. The new ATT qualifies as a viable tunneling time formula.

ASSEMBLING A MULTISENSORY DEVICE FOR MONITORING AND ASSESSING CONCRETE CURING CONDITIONS

The conventional direct and indirect methods to study the mechanical characteristics of concrete are mainly performing discrete measurements, omitting the continuous internal and external phenomena occurring in the concrete body that may significantly affect its strength and quality. This study presents a multisensory device and a method that simultaneously measures and assesses the impact of curing temperature, ambient temperature and relative humidity on the concrete strength. The device was assembled on the basis of Arduino Pro Mini microcontroller connected with various sensors, as well as clock reading and memory modules. The method proposed to assess the impact of different factors on concrete strength is based on strength tests and their confidence curve, monitoring of concrete curing conditions, correlation and weighting techniques. The performance of proposed device and its method was justified experimentally using the concrete cubic specimens of different size. To visualize the specimens monitoring results the color gradations, petal and bar chart representations were used, and taken into account for the future implementation of a software interface for the multisensory device.

Meeskäsitööliste vestlusring Heimtali laadal 25. septembril 2021 / The current state of artisanal woodwork in Estonia: a roundtable

Why do we expect handicraft to occupy any place at all in our brave digital world? This was the first question asked at the woodcraftsmen’s roundtable held at the Heimtali Fair in Viljandi county on the 25th September, 2021. The purpose of the discussion was to investigate the wider background to men’s handicraft in the framework of the current year dedicated to male artisanship. Three artisan woodworkers joined the roundtable initiated by University of Tartu Viljandi Culture Academy in order to gain an overview of the field and to supply important background aspects. The participants were: Martin Bristol, Priit-Kalev Parts, and Meelis Kihulane. Martin Bristol has been active in starting the Puupank initiative which deals with the procurement of rare and specific wood material. He is also a founder of several platform-craft shops that have been functioning successfully in the old town of Tallinn. Priit-Kalev Parts was the initiator of the native construction study programme at the University of Tartu Viljandi Culture Academy and is also known as a maker of dugout canoes. Meelis Kihulane is renowned for reviving native woodwork and he is an experimental instructor of artisanry. The questions were posed by a long-term associate to the University of Tartu Viljandi Culture Academy in the field of traditional technologies, Madis Rennu.&#x0D; The discussion focused on the local entrepreneurial environment and the influence of wider economic space with its crises and limits to growth such as peak oil, green transition and EU structural funds, the gender of artisans, and computer addiction. Additionally, they discussed such evergreen topics as clock reading skills and the objectives of a national university. The wish was expressed to move towards a wider recognition of manual skills as indispensable part of personal development, as was the desire to add more substance to attempts to improve the image of low-tech skills. The acquisition of manual skills, including working with both hands and standing on two feet, should be a recognised part of mental development at school ages of between 15 and 25 years.&#x0D; The participants unanimously agreed that manual skills, as opposed to economic activity, consumerism, wealth, peak oil etc. have gradually declined over recent decades, and that we have probably now reached the bottom of the curve. Hopefully after the decline of the economic peak, the importance given to the possession of manual skills will start to rise again.&#x0D; Terminology is also a problem. The word ‘handicraft’ may sound old-fashioned or even obsolete; it is often loaded with political or ideological ballast. Answers to the question whether it is possible to earn a livelihood with handicraft were diverse: a convinced ’no’, a hyperbolically conditional ’yes’ (if one could win the olympics of handicraft), and a convinced ’yes’, albeit one which admitted that handicraft is part of lifestyle.&#x0D; The participants were rather sceptical as to the long-term positive impact of EU structural funds on handicraft, but the current situation, which is characterised by an increase of raw material and energy prices, seems hopeful because there are signs that top brands are interested in bringing their production back to Europe from China and so are seeking contacts, something which may lead to new opportunities for manually skilled artisans here.&#x0D; Martin Bristol summarised matters as follows: “A shop does not have to be in Viru Street. It can be in the forest, if the narrative is powerful enough – and of course it has to be top-level. If there is a grove and people who are dedicated – I really mean that we would be able to produce more out of one hectare of forest without cutting it than is produced with the help of clear cut. And if we add full production-chain logic, in the sense that forest is not only wood for building, and fleece is not only a dull by-product, we could develop quite a contemporary form of production. But all this presupposes knowledge of the specificities of native raw materials and regions, clock reading, and a bit of entrepreneurship as well.“

Using Hawgent Mathematics Software to Help Primary School Students to Read Clocks

Clock reading is a very important skill for students however there are still students that finds clock reading difficult to understand. Technology can help students to understand mathematics concepts. This research developed a learning media using the research and development method and the ADDIE framework. The sample of this research are 87 students from Bandung, Indonesia. The learning media is made based on the analysis of teachers’ and students’ difficulties on clock reading. The result of this research shows that Hawgent dynamic mathematics software can help students to understand clock reading. The learning media also received a positive response from the students. During the teaching and learning process, students were more active in answering the teachers’ questions and were able to follow the instruction given. This research proved that technology can help students in various aspects that includes getting students’ attention so that they more focused in learning mathematics. The use of technology can be used for various topics in various grades.

‘몇 시 몇 분 전’으로 시각 읽기에 얽힌 수학적 활동의 탐색

This article arose from the question ‘how can the relative time reading be regarded as doing mathematics?’ To answer the question, I explored the interplay of time words relative time reading and mediation of tools which reflect two different time representational systems from a sociocultural description on learning that includes explicit treatments of word meaning and use. I conducted the clock reading test with 126 3rd graders and interviews with students who proved their ability for reading time in a relative way. The findings were as follows: (1) Participating students were approaching the relative time reading in a different manner as absolute time reading. The differences in performance upon tools were also identified. (2) Students were endorsing various mathematical narratives to read time in a relative way. (3) Errors in the relative time reading were related to the structural properties of time tools. Draw on the finding, the word 전(jeon) in relative time reading is dynamically interwoven with doing mathematics and interacting with tools reflect representational systems. The fact that the use and meaning of words become doing mathematics indicates that words themselves are dynamically interwoven with activity. The meaning of doing mathematics mediated by tool properties which are possible only in time learning and implications for the chance to increase mathematical learning opportunities in time contents in elementary mathematics were discussed.

Are Analogue or Digital Clocks Friendlier for People Living with Dementia?

Background: In ageing population, it is desirable to reduce the impact of cognitive decline on daily life. While various types of dementia-friendly environments have been proposed, the question still remains regarding whether analogue or digital clocks are friendlier for people with dementia. Methods: In clinical practice, we normally use our original clock reading test (10 analogue and 10 digital clocks) to assess patients’ ability to read a clock. In the present study, a retrospective medical record survey was conducted. Fifty-five participants who had done the test were identified. The result of the test was compared between analogue and digital clocks. Additionally, to assess specific ability to read analogue clocks, an “analogue-digital gap” was defined as the difference between patients’ performance for analogue and digital clocks. Univariate and multivariate analyses were conducted to detect significant factors associated with reading ability specific to analogue clocks. Results: The analogue clock proved less readable than the digital clock, even after adjusting for MMSE total score (p = 0.003). Multivariate analysis revealed reading ability of the analogue clock was significantly associated with MMSE calculation and clock drawing test (p = 0.009 and 0.040, respectively). Conclusions: In the present study, the digital clock was friendlier than the analogue clock for patients with dementia. Compared to the digital clock, reading analogue clocks might require more widespread cognition, such as working memory and visuospatial processing. While our finding was a general tendency, and individual assessment is necessary, it might help the development of personalized environmental adjustments.

Effectiveness of Activity Based Analog Clock Reading Skill Teaching Applied to Students with Specific Learning Disabilities

Amaç: Bu araştırmanın amacı, özel öğrenme güçlüğü olan 9-10 yaşları arasındaki 3 öğrenciye analog saatlerde gösterilen tam, buçuk, çeyrek geçe, çeyrek kala, dakika geçe ve dakika kala saatlerin kaç olduğunu söyleme, rakamlarla yazma ve rakamlarla yazılan saati çizerek gösterme becerileri öğretimi için hazırlanan etkinlik temelli öğretim programının etkililiğini ve genellenebilirliğini incelemektir. Yöntem: Araştırmada, tek denekli araştırma yöntemlerinden denekler arası çoklu başlama düzeyi deseni kullanılmıştır. Araştırmanın deneysel süreci, beceri analizinin hazırlanması, etkinliklerin hazırlanması, etkinlikler için materyallerin hazırlanması ile başlama düzeyi, öğretim, son değerlendirme ve genelleme oturumlarından oluşmaktadır. İlk aşamada saat okuma becerisinin beceri analizi yapılmış ve 18 kazanım belirlenmiştir. Belirlenen bu 18 kazanımın öğretimi için üç etkinlik ve üç materyal tasarlanmıştır. Öğretim oturumları planlanmış üç etkinlik ile yürütülmüştür. Bulgular: Sekiz öğretim oturumu sonunda, üç katılımcının da hedeflenen kazanımlardan tam saatler, yarım saatler, çeyrek geçeli saatler, çeyrek kalalı saatler ve dakika geçeli saatler ile ilgili kazanımları edindiği görülmüştür. Üç katılımcı da hedeflenen kazanımların %83’ünü kazanmıştır. Ayrıca, katılımcıların bu becerileri farklı ortamlarda, farlı materyallerle ve farklı kişilerle de genelleyebildiği belirlenmiştir. Sonuçlar ve Öneriler: Hazırlanan sekiz oturumluk etkinlik temelli analog saat okuma becerisi öğretiminin etkili olduğu düşünülmektedir. Bu yüzden, etkinlik temelli öğretim tekniğinin özel öğrenme güçlüğü olan öğrencilere saat okuma becerisi öğretiminde kullanılabilecek bir yöntem oluğu düşünülmektedir.

Quantum clocks observe classical and quantum time dilation

At the intersection of quantum theory and relativity lies the possibility of a clock experiencing a superposition of proper times. We consider quantum clocks constructed from the internal degrees of relativistic particles that move through curved spacetime. The probability that one clock reads a given proper time conditioned on another clock reading a different proper time is derived. From this conditional probability distribution, it is shown that when the center-of-mass of these clocks move in localized momentum wave packets they observe classical time dilation. We then illustrate a quantum correction to the time dilation observed by a clock moving in a superposition of localized momentum wave packets that has the potential to be observed in experiment. The Helstrom-Holevo lower bound is used to derive a proper time-energy/mass uncertainty relation.

Diagnostic Accuracy of Usual Cognitive Screening Tests Versus Appropriate Tests for Lower Education to Identify Alzheimer Disease.

The accuracy of commonly used screening tests for Alzheimer's disease (AD) has not been directly compared to those that could be more appropriate for lower schooling. To compare the diagnostic accuracy of usual screening tests for AD with instruments that might be more appropriate for lower schooling among older adults with low or no literacy. The study included a clinical sample of 117 elderly outpatients from a Geriatric Clinic classified as literate controls (n = 39), illiterate controls (n = 30), literate AD (n = 30) and illiterate AD (n = 18). The tests were compared as follows: Black and White versus Colored Figure Memory Test; Clock Drawing Test versus Clock Reading Test; Verbal Fluency (VF) animal versus grocery category; CERAD Constructional Praxis versus Stick Design Test. The means of literate and illiterate controls did not differ in the Black and White Figure Memory Test (immediate recall), Colored Figure Memory Test (delayed recall), Clock Reading Test and VF animals and grocery categories. The means of the clinical groups (controls versus AD), in the 2 schooling levels, differed significantly in most of the tests, except for the CERAD Constructive Praxis and the Stick Design Test. Diagnostic accuracy was not significantly different between the compared tests. Commonly used screening tests for AD were as accurate as those expected to overcome the education bias in a sample of older adults with lower or no education.

Synchronization of symbols as the construction of times and places

We demonstrate an unsuspected freedom in physics, by showing an essential unpredictability in the relation between the behavior of clocks on the workbench and explanations of that behavior written in symbols on the blackboard. In theory, time and space are defined by clocks synchronized as specified by relations among clock readings at the transmission and reception of light signals; however spacetime curvature implies obstacles to this synchronization. Recognizing the need to handle bits and other symbols in both theory and experiment, we offer a novel theory of symbol handling, centered on a kind of ‘logical synchronization’, distinct from the synchronization defined by Einstein in special relativity.We present three things:1. We show a need in physics, stemming from general relativity, for physicists to make choices about what clocks to synchronize with what other clocks.2. To exploit the capacity to make choices of synchronization, we provide a theory in which to express timing relations between transmitted symbols and the clock readings of the agent that receives them, without relying on any global concept of ‘time’. Dispensing with a global time variable is a marked departure from current practice.3. The recognition of unpredictability calls for more attention to behavior on the workbench of experiment relative to what can be predicted on the blackboard. As a prime example, we report on the ‘horse race’ situation of an agent measuring the order of arrival of two symbols, to show how order determinations depart from any possible assignment of values of a time variable.

The International Regulation and Governance of Time

The paper examines the system for the regulation and governance of time, both with respect to the time of day (i.e., clock readings), and calendar dates. Sub-topics of the two areas include the definition of Universal Time Coordinated (UTC), time zones, daylight saving time, and the International Date Line (IDL). The analysis begins, for both areas, by briefly sketching out the scientific background—without which the subsequent legal and institutional discussion would not be meaningful—and the historical development. It then goes on to describe the present-day mechanism for the regulation of both areas. This examination will reveal noteworthy differences: whereas the regulation of clock readings is based on a complex interplay between national statutes and government laboratories, international organizations, and non-governmental organizations, hardly any formal legal or institutional framework is in place for the regulation of calendars. An explanation for this discrepancy is suggested. The paper then proceeds to address questions of interpretation where international legal instruments make reference to time without specifying the relevant time reckoning system; a solution is proposed which builds on 19th-century domestic litigation, adapted to the context of public international law. A final paragraph draws more general conclusions and undertakes a brief outlook into the future.

The invisible quantity: time intervals in early algebra / La cantidad invisible: los intervalos de tiempo en el álgebra temprana

A common context for instruction in early algebra involves time, an invisible and intangible quantity commonly represented as intervals of length. This paper presents a case study of syntactically guided reasoning with the structure of an analogue clock involving a second-grade student. As her descriptions shifted from clock-reading procedures to a treatment of interval, she integrated conflicting ideas related to learned procedures for clock reading with time as experienced in the world. I discuss implications for early algebra related to strands for functions and quantitative reasoning.