Clinical Signs Of Rabies Research Articles

Knowledge, attitudes, and practices toward rabies in three provinces of Indonesia.

Background and Aim:Rabies is an important viral zoonotic disease that is mostly transmitted through the bite of a rabid dog. Despite serious efforts regarding its control, rabies is still endemic in many provinces of Indonesia. The study aims to assess the knowledge, attitudes, and practices (KAP) related to rabies in urban and rural areas in three provinces of Indonesia.Materials and Method:s: A total of 432 respondents of different age groups, educational levels, geographical areas, and occupations participated in this study. Data were collected using a pre-designed questionnaire with online and offline modes to assess the KAP of rabies among the respondents. A series of Chi-square tests and frequency distribution analyses were performed to determine associations between response variables.Results:Of the 432 participants, 56.9% were aware of the clinical signs of rabies. Excepting for people at high risk of contracting the disease (e.g., veterinarians), most respondents (83.1%) were not vaccinated against rabies. Surprisingly, 79.4 % of those who were bitten by an infected dog did not seek medical care from the doctor and approximately 71.8% had poor knowledge of rabies control and vaccine campaigns. Of all respondents, 64% (p<0.05, odds ratio=1.63) were vaccinated after an infected dog bite. Similarly, 32% (p<0.05, odds ratio=1.59) were aware of surveys and vaccinations in their areas. In contrast, 20.7% (p<0.05, odds ratio=0.593) reported that rabid dogs were killed in their areas. The majority (89.60%) of the respondents were aware of the fact that rabies can cause death. Most of the respondents (93%) knew that rabies is caused by an infected dog bite. The overall levels of KAP among the respondents were good.Conclusion:The findings of the current study generally show that participants had good knowledge about clinical signs based on their frequency percentage, but lacked knowledge regarding medical treatment and surveys for awareness and vaccination of rabies. Overall, a significant (p<0.05, odds ratio>1) relationship was found among the KAP of participants. This depicts that the majority of the population is aware of rabies and factors involved in its transmission.

Epidemiological patterns of animal bites in Abadeh district of central Iran from 2012 to 2018: A cross-sectional study

Objectives: To investigate the epidemiology of animal bites and associated factors in Abadeh district (central Iran) from 2012 to 2018. Methods: In this cross-sectional study, 1 407 individuals with animal bites who were referred to the Abadeh Rabies Treatment Center were investigated by using the census method from 2012 to 2018. The variables included the victim’s demographic information (age, gender, occupation), the type of biting animals (dog, cat, and other animals), the domesticated and wild animals, the time of biting based on year and month, the residence location (urban or rural), the treatment status, and the anatomical location of the wounds. Results: The annual incidence rate of animal bites was 189.62 per 100 000 population. Totally 83.4% of the victims were male. The average age was (33.66±18.97) years and individuals in the age range of 36-50 years were greater at risk. Most of the animal bites were from dogs (77.8%). About two thirds (62.1%) of the bites were from household animals. A total of 57.1% of individuals lived in urban areas. Most victims were engaged in farming and animal husbandry. The highest prevalence of animal bites (37.4%) happened in the summer. None of the patients had any clinical signs of rabies. Conclusions: To reduce the incidence of animal bites, high-risk groups including farmers and ranchers should be educated about bite prevention, and it should be ensured that they are managed correctly.

Creating awareness of rabies in pupil of Z.P. High School in Kallur (V), Kurnool (Dist), Andhra Pradesh

Background: Rabies is a deadly disease but mostly preventable. Poor public awareness towards rabies is considered as one of the bottle necks for the prevention and control of the disease. The objectives of the study were to create awareness of rabies in pupil of Z.P. High School in Kallur (V), Kurnool (Dt) and to formulate Recommendation to school and concerned authoritiesMethods: A longitudinal intervention study conducted in Z.P. High school from a period of November 1st 2011 to December 31st 2011 among 6th to 9th class school children. And sample size was 160 students. A predesigned, semi structured questionnaire consisting of 28 questions was given to assess their level of awareness regarding rabies.Results: Of the 160 school children interviewed, 98 (61%) of them were males and 62 (38%) female students. The major source of information regarding occurrence of rabies 54 (33.7%) is schools, awareness regarding rabies due to dog bite before pre educational intervention is only 65 (40.62%), only 25% were aware of T.T vaccination, 41% were aware of anti-rabies vaccination. 59.3% were aware of cleaning of wound. Only 36 to 38% were aware of dog vaccination.Conclusions: In conclusion, this study has shown that the level KAP about clinical signs of rabies, prevention methods after suspected animal bite, the first action taken after rabid dog bite is not so good in the school, An intervention was planned in three sessions, and students were educated on how to identify rabid dogs, preventive measures like cleaning of wound after bite, dog vaccination, human vaccination with anti-rabies vaccine and T.T vaccine.

Comparative evaluation of clinicopathological, immunohistochemical, and immunofluorescent techniques for diagnosis of rabies in animals

Rabies is one of the most feared zoonotic diseases in the world. The present study was envisaged to compare the sensitivity of detection of rabies virus antigen by histopathological and immunohistochemical approaches in the brain tissues of 100 rabies-suspected animals. In dogs, anorexia, difficulty in standing/paralysis, and hypersalivation were the common clinical signs, whereas in cattle and buffaloes, important clinical signs of rabies were anorexia, circling/head pressing, behavioral change, and bellowing. Percentage of neurons positive for Negri bodies by hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) and immunohistochemistry (IHC) were 33.34 and 65.71 %, and average number of Negri bodies detected per neuron by H&E and IHC were 1.72 and 3.00, respectively. Out of total 100 samples, 60 were positive for rabies by IHC, 58 by fluorescent antibody technique (FAT), and 45 by histopathology. The sensitivity of histopathology and IHC on brain tissue sections in comparison to FAT of brain smears was found to be 64.28 and 100 %, respectively. The amount of rabies viral antigen/Negri bodies detected with IHC was significantly more than that detected by H&E. It was concluded that immunohistochemistry in formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded tissue sections was more sensitive than histopathology for the detection of Negri bodies/rabies antigen, and therefore of immense value for retrospective studies.

Molecular Detection of Rabies from Milk

Background : Outward spread of rabies virus from the CNS leads to infection of almost all organs and have been reported in various secretions and excretions viz. saliva, urine, CSF, tears (corneal smear). Although transmission of rabies virus from consuming unpasteurized milk from an infected animal is theoretically possible, no human or animal has ever been reported to develop rabies via this route. Neither there had been any practical proof of making claim about shedding of rabies virus in milk. This work aimed to identify the presence of rabies virus in unpasteurized raw milk from naturally-infected animals that were confirmed positive for rabies by FAT on brain tissue. Method : Out of total 25 animals showing clinical signs of rabies, milk sample was obtained from 17 lactating animals. Brief history was recorded and an attempt was made by employing advanced molecular approach TaqMan real time PCR on milk samples with an aim to detect the presence of rabies viral RNA. Confirmatory diagnosis of rabies was made by applying immunofluorescence techniques on brain tissue after death of an animal. Results : The present finding depicts the presence of rabies viral RNA in 4/17(23.52%) milk sample with a sensitivity of 60% when compared with FAT applied on brain tissue. Conclusion : A complete perusal of literature revealed that there had not been a single reported study to detect the presence of rabies viral RNA in milk samples. Although with this study it is now proved practically that rabies viral RNA can be found in milk samples from lactating animals however the infectivity of unpasteurized raw milk needs to be evaluated.

Analysis of Rabies Surveillance Data (2008-2011) in Bali Province, Indonesia

Bali Province was historically free from rabies. The first human rabies case in Bali was confirmed in late 2008. By June 2010, rabies had spread to all districts, affecting 30% of villages with 133 human deaths reported. To describe rabies situation in Bali from 2008 to 2011, data on human deaths and animal surveillance were collected from provincial public health and livestock offices of Bali, and Disease Investigation Centre (DIC) in Denpasar City, Bali. A total of 443 dogs were tested for rabies by the DIC Denpasar. Of these, 29% were tested positive by Fluorescent Antibody Test (FAT). The highest proportions of positive sample were from dogs that bit human and dogs with clinical signs of rabies. Male dogs were 1.7 times more likely to have rabies than the female ones and unvaccinated dogs were 2.2 times more likely to be infected with rabies than the vaccinated dogs. To control rabies in Bali, a multi-ministerial coordination mechanisms at national and local levels were established. Prevention and control measures were implemented, including mass dog vaccination, surveillance, stray dogs depopulation and public awareness campaign. Mass dog vaccination and stray dogs depopulation targeting dogs with history of biting humans or clinical symptoms demonstrated success in preventing spread of rabies in Bali.

Evaluation of knowledge, attitudes, and practices of deer owners following identification of a cluster of captive deer with rabies in Pennsylvania in July 2010

To evaluate knowledge, attitudes, and practices of deer owners following identification of a cluster of captive deer with rabies as an aid for the development of rabies prevention educational materials. Cross-sectional study. Captive-deer owners who were members of the pennsylvania deer farmers association. Information was obtained via a mailed, self-administered questionnaire. The questionnaire response rate was 59% (249/425). One hundred three of 206 (50%) respondents had incomplete knowledge of rabies virus vectors, transmission, severity, and prevention measures. Birds or snakes were incorrectly identified as rabies vectors by 96 of 213 (45%) respondents, and most (≥ 94%) respondents identified rabies virus reservoirs as vectors. Ninety of 231 (39%) respondents identified death as an outcome of rabies, and 184 of 235 (78%) respondents would seek emergency treatment if they suspected exposure. Only 62 of 235 (26%) respondents would wash a wound immediately. The majority of respondents (173/239 [72%]) did not know the clinical signs of rabies in deer. Nine respondents indicated that they vaccinated their deer against rabies, and the majority of respondents (158/214 [74%]) would be willing to vaccinate. Findings suggested that deer owners in Pennsylvania have a basic knowledge of rabies; however, knowledge, attitudes, and practices regarding prevention of rabies transmission could be improved considerably. Rabies educational materials for deer owners should focus on postexposure procedures, disease severity, recognition of rabies in deer, and changes in management practices such as vaccination to prevent rabies.

Safety study of the Bio-10-SAD Bern strain of the rabies virus on the rhesus macaque monkey species

Based on a WHO recommendation, residual pathogenicity of the Bio-10-SAD Bern rabies virus strain (component of the Lysvulpen por. ad us. vet. vaccine) was tested on rhesus macaque monkeys. Each of the ten monkeys, females, two years old, was administered orally 2 ml × 109 TCID50 of the Bio-10-SAD Bern rabies strain. The animals were monitored for 90 days. Subsequently, the animals were sacrificed and their brains were examined for presence of the vaccination rabies virus by the immunofluorescence and PCR methods. The occurrence of anti-rabies antibodies prior to and following administration of the vaccination rabies virus was also evaluated. No clinical signs of rabies were observed nor did any of the animals die of rabies following application of the virus. No rabies was detected in the study animals by post mortem examination. All of the 10 animals developed anti-rabies antibodies during the 90 days following administration of the rabies virus. It can be concluded, that Bio-10-SAD Bern virus administered at a dose equal to the tenfold maximum dose specified for field uses is safe to monkeys of the rhesus macaque species. This study is the first of its type performed in rhesus macaque monkey species.

Pathobiology of rabies virus and the European bat lyssaviruses in experimentally infected mice

A comparison of the clinicopathology of European bat lyssavirus (EBLV) types-1 and -2 and of rabies virus was undertaken. Following inoculation of mice at a peripheral site with these viruses, clinical signs of rabies and distribution of virus antigen in the mouse brain were examined. The appearance of clinical signs of disease varied both within and across the different virus species, with variation in incubation periods and weight loss throughout disease progression. The distribution of viral antigen throughout the regions of the brain examined was similar for each of the isolates during the different stages of disease progression, suggesting that antigen distribution was not associated with clinical presentation. However, specific regions of the brain including the cerebellum, caudal medulla, hypothalamus and thalamus, showed notable differences in the proportion of virus antigen positive cells present in comparison to other brain regions suggesting that these areas are important in disease development irrespective of virus species.

Compendium of Animal Rabies Prevention and Control, 2011

the disease, and for purposes of this document, use of the term animal refers to mammals. The disease is an acute, progressive encephalitis caused by a lyssavirus. Rabies virus is the most important lyssavirus globally. In the United States, multiple rabies virus variants are maintained in wild mammalian reservoir populations, such as raccoons, skunks, foxes, and bats. Although the United States has been declared free from transmission of canine rabies virus variants, there is always a risk of reintroduction of these variants. 2–6 The virus is usually transmitted from animal to animal through bites. The incubation period is highly variable. In domestic animals, it is generally 3 to 12 weeks but can range from several days to months, rarely exceeding 6 months. 7 Rabies is communicable during the period of salivary shedding of rabies virus. Experimental and historic evidence document that dogs, cats, and ferrets shed virus a few days prior to clinical onset and during illness. Clinical signs of rabies are variable and include inappetence, dysphagia, cranial nerve deficits, abnormal behavior, ataxia, paralysis, altered vocalization, and seizures. Progression to death is rapid. There are currently no known effective rabies antiviral drugs.

Disminución del número de neuronas que expresan GABA en la corteza cerebral de ratones infectados con rabia

GABAergic neurons synthesize and release gamma-aminobutyric acid, the predominant inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain. Certain clinical signs of rabies and previous experimental studies have suggested that rabies viral infections affect the host GABAergic system. The effect of rabies virus infection on the expression of GABA was evaluated in neurons of the mouse cerebral cortex. Adult mice were inoculated by intramuscular injection with the standard strain of rabies (CVS virus). The animals were sacrificed in the terminal stage of the illness and perfused with 4% paraformaldehyde and 1% glutaraldehyde. Frontal sections were obtained in a Vibratome(R) and treated with appropriate immunohistochemical reactions for identifying the GABAergic neurons in the cerebral cortex. Counts and comparative quantitative analysis of the GABA+ neurons were compared in samples of infected and normal mice. In the animals infected with rabies virus, the distribution pattern of cortical GABAergic neurons was not changed, but their number diminished significantly. The mean value of GABA+ cells number in 1 microm2 of cerebral cortex was 293+/-32 in normal samples and 209+/-13 in infected samples. Despite the loss in GABA+ cell number, the average size of GABA+ cells per unit increased from 104+/-8 microm2 in normal mice to 122+/-10 microm2 in infected mice because the cell loss consisted more frequently of smaller neurons. Nevertheless, the rank of GABA+ cell sizes in infected samples was similar to normal samples. This evidence supported the hypothesis that GABA is involved in rabies pathology.

Viral excretion in domestic ferrets (Mustela putorius furo) inoculated with a raccoon rabies isolate

Abstract Objective To determine susceptibility, incubation and morbidity periods, clinical signs of infection, serologic response, and excretion of virus in domestic ferrets inoculated with rabies virus of raccoon origin. Animals 54 domestic ferrets. Procedure 5 groups of ferrets were inoculated IM with the rabies virus. Oral cavity swab specimens and saliva were obtained for virus isolation. Blood was obtained for virus-neutralizing antibody determination. If clinical signs were severe, ferrets were euthanatized immediately. Salivary gland and brain tissue was collected for virus isolation and rabies diagnosis, respectively. Results Of 51 inoculated ferrets, 19 (37%) were euthanatized with clinical signs of rabies. Mean incubation period was 28 days (range, 17 to 63 days). Clinical signs included ataxia, cachexia, inactivity, paresis, paraparesis, bladder atony, tremors, hypothermia, lethargy, constipation, paralysis, and anorexia. Two rabid ferrets manifested aggressive behavior. Mean morbidity period was 4 to 5 days (range, 1 to 8 days). Virus antigen was detected in brain tissue from all rabid ferrets (n = 19). Two rabid ferrets had detectable virus-neutralizing antibody. Of 32 ferrets that survived, only 1 seroconverted; survivors remained clinically normal throughout the observation period. Rabies virus was isolated from salivary glands of 12 of 19 (63%) rabid ferrets, and 9 (47%) shed virus in saliva. Initiation of virus excretion ranged from 2 days before onset of illness to 6 days after onset. Conclusions and Clinical Relevance Rabies should be considered in the differential diagnosis for ferrets that have acute onset of paralysis or behavioral changes and a condition that rapidly deteriorates despite intense medical intervention. (Am J Vet Res 1998;59:1629-1632)

Clinical presentation of experimentally induced rabies in horses.

Twelve naive and nine test-vaccinated horses which developed clinical signs of rabies as a result of the required protocol of a vaccine trial were prospectively observed. Nineteen of the 21 cases were confirmed positive for rabies infection of the brain by fluorescent antibody test. The two horses with negative results had ganglioneuritis of the trigeminal ganglion or lymphocytic perivascular cuffing in the brain stem in addition to clinical signs. Average incubation period was 12.3 days and average morbidity was 5.5 days. Naive animals had significantly shorter incubation and morbidity periods (P < 0.05). Muzzle tremors were the most frequently observed (81%) and most common initial sign. Other common signs were pharyngeal spasm or pharyngeal paresis (71%), ataxia or paresis (71%), lethargy or somnolence (71%). The furious form was manifested in 43% of rabid horses and some of these furious animals initially manifested the dumb form. The paralytic form was not observed. Histopathology was characteristics for rabies. The results of this trial do not reflect on the efficacy of commercially licensed equine rabies vaccines.