Climate-smart Agricultural Practices Research Articles

Factors influencing small holder farmers adoption of climate SMART agriculture practices in Welmera Woreda, Central Ethiopia

Adoption of climate-smart agriculture practices are believed to have significantly lessened the devastating impact of climate change on agriculture. However, in countries like Ethiopia, the adoption and use level of climate-smart agriculture practices remains low. The understanding of farmers’ levels of CSA practice adoption and influencing factors is therefore crucial. The goal of the study is to evaluate the degree to which various CSA practices were being used in the study area, as well as adoption determinants. The study was conducted in Welmera district, Oromia, Ethiopia. Three kebeles were chosen from the district, and a random sample of 306 farmers was picked. We used a cross-sectional household survey, a focus group discussion, and interviews with key informants. A multivariate probit model was employed to investigate the factors influencing the adoption of multiple climate-smart agriculture practices. According to the result, conservation agriculture, integrated soil fertility management, and crop diversification are the most often used CSA practices. The results also revealed that male farmers outperformed female farmers in terms of crop diversity and improved animal feed and feeding practice adoption. The age of farmers has a considerable and unfavorable impact on their likelihood of adopting improved soil fertility management and crop diversification practices. However, it has a positive and considerable impact on the adoption of agroforestry practices. With regards to economic factors, having a relatively big farmland area considerably enhances the adoption of conservation agriculture, enhances soil fertility management and crop diversity, and improves livestock feed and feeding methods and post-harvest technology practice. Improved livestock feed and feeding are more likely to be used with higher farm income. Having a significant number of animals strongly promotes the adoption of conservation agriculture, and access to financial services positively impacts agroforestry, diversification of crops, and postharvest technology practice adoption. Furthermore, institutional factors including access to agricultural extension services and training were discovered to be important and beneficial for crop diversification; similarly, access to field day participation was discovered to have a significant and positive impact on the adoption of conservation agriculture and improved soil fertility management practices. It is critical to raise awareness about climate change among farmers and experts, as well as to incorporate location-specific CSA practices into agricultural programs.

Gender gaps in the adoption of climate‐smart agricultural practices: Evidence from sub‐Saharan Africa

AbstractIn this paper we examine whether there are significant gender differences in the adoption of climate‐smart agricultural (CSA) practices in sub‐Saharan Africa. Using individual‐level data from four sites in Kenya, Uganda and Senegal, our empirical analysis provides robust evidence that men have a higher likelihood of adopting high‐return CSA practices including modern chemical fertiliser, improved high‐yielding varieties and drought/pest tolerant livestock practices. In contrast, women tend to have a higher likelihood of adopting low‐risk and low‐return traditional CSA practices such as water harvesting, crop covering, rangeland management and pest management. Our subsample analysis shows significant heterogeneity in the gender gap across countries. The results of the decomposition of the observed gender gap show that personal values and norms, access to weather and production information and farm characteristics are important factors that explain the gender differential in the likelihood of CSA adoption. Our findings imply that equalising access to key resources such as plots of land, information and decision making power will be crucial to close the gender gap in the adoption of CSA practices. This is particularly important given the differential impacts of climate change between men and women in sub‐Saharan Africa.

Determinants of Smallholder Farmers’ Adoption of Climate-Smart Agricultural Practices in Zomba, Eastern Malawi

Smallholder farmers in Malawi largely depend on rainfed agriculture, despite climate change posing serious threats to this form of agriculture. The adoption of climate-smart agricultural practices is pivotal in offsetting the effects of climate change on agriculture. Despite the great potential of climate-smart agricultural practices in combating the effects of climate change on agriculture, smallholder farmers’ adoption of it remains low. Reasons are varied, suggesting that the factors are largely contextual. This study, therefore, explored the determinants of smallholder farmers’ adoption of climate-smart agricultural practices in Zomba, within the framework of the diffusion of innovations. Using a convergent mixed research design, the study purposively selected key informants and randomly selected smallholder farmers. Questionnaires, interviews, and observation guides were used to collect data. Thematic analysis was used to analyse qualitative data, while descriptive analysis was used to analyse quantitative data. Results indicate that only 26% of smallholder farmers have adopted the promoted climate-smart agricultural practices. Compatibility and simplicity are the chief determinants of climate-smart agricultural practice adoption. The majority of smallholder farmers fall under the late majority. Evidence shows that labour and capital intensive climate-smart agricultural practices are less likely to be adopted by smallholder farmers. Implementing agencies, therefore, should first consult the local farmers on the ground to see practices that are already being followed and are suitable before bringing the new ones. This will ensure that the appropriate climate-smart agricultural practices are promoted.

Climate-smart agriculture: adoption, impacts, and implications for sustainable development

AbstractThe 19 papers included in this special issue examined the factors influencing the adoption of climate-smart agriculture (CSA) practices among smallholder farmers and estimated the impacts of CSA adoption on farm production, income, and well-being. Key findings from this special issue include: (1) the variables, including age, gender, education, risk perception and preferences, access to credit, farm size, production conditions, off-farm income, and labour allocation, have a mixed (either positive or negative) influence on the adoption of CSA practices; (2) the variables, including labour endowment, land tenure security, access to extension services, agricultural training, membership in farmers’ organizations, support from non-governmental organizations, climate conditions, and access to information consistently have a positive impact on CSA adoption; (3) diverse forms of capital (physical, social, human, financial, natural, and institutional), social responsibility awareness, and digital advisory services can effectively promote CSA adoption; (4) the establishment of climate-smart villages and civil-society organizations enhances CSA adoption by improving their access to credit; (5) CSA adoption contributes to improved farm resilience to climate change and mitigation of greenhouse gas emissions; (6) CSA adoption leads to higher crop yields, increased farm income, and greater economic diversification; (7) integrating CSA technologies into traditional agricultural practices not only boosts economic viability but also contributes to environmental sustainability and health benefits; and (8) there is a critical need for international collaboration in transferring technology for CSA. Overall, the findings of this special issue highlight that through targeted interventions and collaborative efforts, CSA can play a pivotal role in achieving food security, poverty alleviation, and climate resilience in farming communities worldwide and contribute to the achievements of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals.

Social responsibility awareness and adoption of climate-smart agricultural practices: evidence from food-based family farms in China

Social responsibility awareness and adoption of climate-smart agricultural practices: evidence from food-based family farms in China

Assessing Agricultural Impact on Greenhouse Gases in the European Union: A Climate-Smart Agriculture Perspective

With the increasing concern about climate change and its impacts on agriculture, understanding the dynamics of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in the European Union (EU) agricultural sector is essential for devising effective mitigation strategies. This study aims to assess the impact of agriculture on GHG within the EU and to examine how climate-smart agricultural practices can affect these emissions. The research investigates the complex relationship between agricultural activities and GHG emissions within the European Union during the period of 2017–2022 using structural equation modeling based on data from Eurostat and the European Commission. Furthermore, the study examines the influence of the digital economy on labor productivity in agriculture, recognizing the pivotal role of digital technologies in fostering climate-smart agricultural practices. The findings unveil significant positive influences encompassing the digital economy, agricultural productivity, agricultural output, and GHG emissions, underscoring the imperative of integrating climate-smart methodologies into agricultural frameworks. However, the influence of digital technologies is not significant as a result of opposing forces. Digital technologies exert positive indirect influences by increasing agricultural productivity and agricultural output, while they have negative influences by improving production processes through automation and precision agriculture. Digitalization and climate-smart agricultural practices have a significant potential to improve the efficiency and sustainability of the agricultural sector, contributing to food security and environmental protection by reducing GHG emissions. This study highlights the EU’s potential to achieve its environmental objectives through the reduction of GHG emissions and the enhancement of resilience within the agricultural sector, emphasizing the necessity of adopting climate-smart strategies.

Enhancing crop yields and farm income through climate-smart agricultural practices in Eastern India

Climate-induced increase in temperature and rainfall variability severely threaten the agricultural sector and food security in the Indian state of Odisha. Climate-smart agricultural (CSA) practices, such as crop rotation and integrated soil management, help farmers adapt to climate risk and contribute to a reduction in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Therefore, this paper examines the impact of CSA practices on yield and income in vulnerable semi-arid districts of Odisha—Balangir, Kendrapara, and Mayurbhanj. We use primary survey data from 494 households collected in 2019–2020, using a multi-stage stratified sampling approach and structured questionnaire. Propensity score matching (PSM) and the two-stage least square method (2SLS) have been used to analyze the impact of CSA on income and productivity. Two instrument variables, namely distance to the extension office and percentage of adopters in a village, are used to control self-selection bias and endogeneity in our model. Both models show a positive and significant impact of the adoption of CSA on farmers’ productivity and income. The study sheds light on the significant contribution of CSA practices in fostering sustainable income growth amid environmental challenges. Overall, our results suggest that small and marginal farmers of Eastern India, a highly environmentally vulnerable area, can significantly improve their income and productivity by adopting CSA technology. Hence, policymakers should scale the adoption of CSA technology through effective extension programs.

Vulnerability and resilience in the face of climate changes in Senegal's drylands: measurement at the household level and determinant assessment

The resilience capacity of smallholder households is one of the main drivers of their ability to continue to farm and make investments in the fragile dryland regions. This paper aims to assess the resilience profile of smallholder farmers in the face of climate change and the factors influencing it in three dryland sub-regions of Senegal, namely, Louga, Kaffrine, and Thies. We developed a composite index of climate resilience (CICR) using data on farmers' perceptions of climate variability and their perceived ability to withstand, adapt, and bounce back in the event of climatic shocks. Drought, strong winds, and soil fertility decline because of climate change emerged as the main climate hazards impacting smallholder farming systems. The CICR value ranged from −2 for the most vulnerable households to +2 for the most resilient households. On average, all the households were found to be vulnerable, with an average CICR value of −0.2. The LOUGA region was the most vulnerable, with an average CICR value of −0.36, followed by THIES (-0.2). The KAFFRINE region was relatively less vulnerable, with a CICR value of −0.1. Ordered logit model estimates show that the chances of improving CICR decrease with the increase of the household head's age until 59 years. Access to training on climate-smart agricultural (CSA) practices and climate information appeared to have the potential to increase by 171% the chance of the household improving its resilience status. Analysis also shows that one more woman working off-farm or in-home gardening has the potential to multiply by four times the chances of households being more resilient. This highlights the importance of empowering women to enhance household resilience to climate change. The off-farm revenue increased the chance to improve the resilience status of the farm household by 62% and the receipt of transfer revenue by 50%. This study provides a robust method for quantifying resilience or wellbeing and its drivers and enriches our understanding of the resilience ability of farmers to climate change in a West African context. It can be useful in designing effective adaptation interventions and improving the overall wellbeing of smallholder farmers.

A systematic review identifying the drivers and barriers to the adoption of climate-smart agriculture by smallholder farmers in Africa

Climate change impact, food security concerns, and greenhouse gas emissions are pressuring agricultural production systems in developing countries. There is a need for a shift toward sustainable food systems. One of the concepts introduced to drive this shift is climate-smart agriculture (CSA), endorsed by international organizations to address multifaceted challenges. Despite widespread attention and support, the adoption of CSA among African farmers remains low. This systematic literature review aims to shed light on the factors influencing CSA adoption amongst African farmers. Within the articles identified as relevant, over 50 CSA practices and more than 40 factors influencing CSA adoption were distinguished. These influencing factors can be categorized as personal, farm-related, financial, environmental, and informational. The focus of this review is to identify and explain the overall impact (positive, negative, or mixed) of these factors on CSA adoption. Overall, many factors result in mixed effects, only some factors have an unambiguous positive or negative effect on CSA adoption. For instance, educational level emerges as a key personal factor, positively impacting CSA adoption, along with positive influences from farmers' experience and farm size among farm-related factors. Financial factors reveal distinct patterns, with income from farming and access to credit positively influencing adoption, while off-farm income exhibits a negative effect. Environmental factors, though less researched, indicate positive impacts related to changes in rainfall patterns, temperature, and droughts. Lastly, informational factors consistently exhibit a positive effect on CSA adoption, with training, access to extension, group memberships, climate information, and CSA awareness playing crucial roles. These findings provide valuable insights for policymakers seeking to enhance CSA adoption in Africa, offering a nuanced understanding of the multifaceted dynamics at play.

Gendered livelihoods and the adoption of climate-smart agricultural practices in Nigeria

Feminist research maintains that livelihood activities are socially differentiated. While gendered unevenness in livelihood opportunities may condition the agricultural adaptive capacities of male-headed households (MHHs) and female-headed households (FHHs) to climate change, the gendered dimensions of livelihood activities have not been addressed in much of the climate-smart agriculture practices (CSAPs) adoption literature. This paper expands feminist livelihood research by analysing gendered dimensions of livelihood activities and their relation to the adoption and intensity of the use of CSAPs. The analysis draws on a nationally representative Living Standards Measurement Survey - Integrated Surveys on Agriculture (LSMS-ISA) panel dataset from Nigeria. The research findings show that a significantly higher percentage of FHHs (51%) are involved in on-farm activities compared to their MHHs (38%) counterparts (p < 0.01). The results further show that gendered household headship (HH) is significantly associated with the adoption of CSAPs. Moreover, based on a feminist approach to livelihoods, we find that livelihood diversification moderates the relationship between gendered HH and CSAP adoption intensity. This suggests that FHHs with more livelihood opportunities have a greater probability of adopting a greater number of CSAPs than MHHs. The paper concludes with policy recommendations for the promotion of CSAPs and sheds light on how the Nigerian government can formulate gender-sensitive policies to promote the adoption of CSAPs.

Impact of climate-smart agricultural practices on smallholder farmers' resilience in Ethiopia

Climate change poses challenges to smallholder farmers in sub-Saharan Africa, including Ethiopia. To address this, adopting Climate-Smart Agricultural Practices (CSAPs) is crucial for building resilient communities. However, limited evidence exists on the impact of CSAPs on farmers' resilience. Therefore, this study aimed to examine the impact of Climate-Smart Agricultural Practices (CSAPs) on the resilience of smallholder farmers and identify the factors determining their resilience. The study collected both quantitative and qualitative data. Quantitative data was obtained from 646 survey households using household surveys, while qualitative data was gathered through focus group discussions and key informant interviews. Findings reveal that there is an agroecological difference in resilience status and factors like the education level of the household head, livestock size, and agricultural extension worker visits positively influence the resilience of CSAP-adopting smallholder farmers. Conversely, sharing crop outlands negatively impacts the adoption of climate-smart practices. Crop CSAP adopters show significantly higher resilience gains (37.74% ATT) compared to non-adopters. Non-adopters could have experienced a substantial improvement (23.83% ATU) if they had adopted CSAPs. Positive and significant effects on resilience were also observed for livestock and soil management CSAP adopters, with an improvement of 28.36% and 40.58%, in resilience capacity, respectively. Non-adopters of these CSAPs could have enhanced their resilience by 24.74% and 10.80%, respectively, if they had adopted these practices. This underscores the need to adopt more CSAPs and the importance of considering these factors in designing policies and promoting CSAP to enhance the resilience of smallholder farmers in Ethiopia and similar contexts.

Predicting climate smart agriculture (CSA) practices using machine learning: A prime exploratory survey

The paper aim and novelty is the development of technology-based tools able of providing realistic insights on farmers’ future adaptation decisions by developing an ML algorithm to predict Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) practices and highlight modeling challenges to account for. And proposing a theoretical approach that grounds the selection of data (i.e. input and response variables) with well stablished theories on adaptation decision making process; with the aim of demonstrating ways of improving data science and ML publication quality in the field of agricultural economics. Data used are farmers’ socio-economic characteristics, farms’ features, agro-ecology’s features, climate indicators (temperature, rain, etc.), etc. In this paper, the optimized Gradient Boosting ML was trained and tested using households’ level data from Rakai district in Central Region of Uganda. The modeling approach was framed in climate adaptation analytical frameworks. Data extracted allows generating CSA clusters giving two response variables (i.e. yCSA_pratices and yCSA_clusters), used separately to train two different algorithms. The developed CSA predictive algorithm demonstrates that adaptation practices can be predicted using households’ level parameters. And both models are revealed to have fair performance metrics, with yCSA_clusters algorithm reaching up to 60% of accuracy. To further improve accuracy scores, deep-learning algorithms are suggested in future research. The developed CSA prediction algorithm could be used at both households and value chain levels, to select appropriate adaptation strategies, to plan adaptation, to estimate adaptation costs and develop investment’ plans.

Fostering Food Security through Farmers’ Intentions to Embrace Climate-Smart Agriculture: Unraveling the Impact of Attitude, Subjective Norms, and Behavioral Control

Food security is a global challenge exacerbated by climate change, especially in lower-income countries. Promoting the implementation of climate-smart agricultural techniques holds significant importance to addressing this issue. This research investigates how farmers’ attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control impact a certain aspect/area on their intention to adopt CSA practices, ultimately contributing to increased food security. Using the Theory of Planned Behavior framework, this study investigates how farmers’ attitudes toward CSAs, subjective norms within their social networks, and perceived ability to implement these practices influence their intentions to adopt CSAs. Data was collected through surveys and interviews with farmers in Cohen’s table to determine the required sample size. Our findings show that farmers’ attitudes towards CSA positively and significantly influence their intention to adopt climate-smart agricultural practices. Additionally, subjective norms are critical in shaping these intentions, indicating that social influence and support networks within farming communities are important in driving CSA adoption. Further, perceived behavioural control emerged as an important factor, highlighting the importance of farmers’ confidence in their ability to implement CSA practices. This research underscores the importance of encouraging positive attitudes, strengthening social networks, and building farmers’ confidence in adopting CSA practices to improve food security in lower-income countries. Policymakers, agricultural extension services, and development organizations can leverage these insights to formulate strategies and interventions to encourage the adoption of implementing climate-smart agriculture practices is essential to safeguard food security amidst the challenges posed by climate change.

Constructing A Climate-Smart readiness index for smallholder farmers: The case of prioritized bundles of climate information services and climate smart agriculture in Ghana

Issues around bundling of climate smart agriculture (CSA) and climate information services (CIS) have been kept relatively distinct whereas in reality, they are more impactful when integrated. Using the case of the Accelerating Impacts of CGIAR Climate Change Research in Africa (AICCRA) Project that emphasizes bundling as a critical component of research in development, six regions of Ghana were purposively selected based on the identified value chain crops for implementation. 120 respondents including practicing farmers and advisors as reference, rated contributions of 21 innovations to 25 climate smartness indicators. These include gender, youth and social inclusion (GSI), enabling environment (EE), ability to enhance soil, water, crop and animal health (One-Health Achievement) (OHA), end-user friendliness (EUF) and climate smart agriculture (CS) for prioritization, bundling and ultimately to construct a Climate Smart Readiness Index (CSRI). There was a high level of concordance between the ratings of farmers and advisors on the Climate Smartness; moderate concordance on OHA and a lower concordance on GSI. The CS and EUF had a significant and same agreement among farmers while EE had a substantial same agreement among advisors. These elements (CS, GSI, OHA, EUF, EE) formed an integral part of the CSRI construct confirmed by the Fornell-Larcker and the Heterotrait-Monotrait criteria. While OHA was the fundamental factor in determining CSRI for farmers, EE was considered more important by the advisors. CSRI informs policy makers and agricultural practitioners on appropriate bundling of CSA and CIS practices to generate evidence for farmer preparedness in the context of resilience, productivity, adaptation, and mitigation.

Climate Change Effects on Sustainable Vegetable Production in India: A Review

This review explores the complex relationship between sustainable vegetable production and climate change, aiming to identify strategies for harnessing climatic shifts to promote resilience and productivity in the agricultural sector. One of the abundant sources of vitamins and minerals in vegetables contributes significantly to food and nutritional security. Vegetables are extremely vulnerable to erratic climate shifts and highly perishable. This study emphasizes the need for adaptable approaches to address issues caused by altered temperature patterns, erratic precipitation and increased extreme weather occurrences. The review highlights the integration of climate-resilient vegetable crop varieties into implementing innovative technologies like precision farming and greenhouse farming and emphasises the need for a holistic approaches. The importance of institutional support, community involvement and policy frameworks is explored to address this complex climate change paradox. By combining existing knowledge, this review provides insights into the numerous strategies required for sustainable vegetable production regarding climate change (Use of climate resilient varieties, Adoption of climate-smart agriculture (CSA) practices, Crop diversification). Consequently, this review article aims to examine the climate change effects on growing vegetables in a sustainable manner as well as its management strategies.

Assessing determinants of scaling up pathways for adopted CSA Climate Smart Agricultural practices: Evidence from Climate Smart Villages in Nyando Basin, Kenya

Assessing determinants of scaling up pathways for adopted CSA Climate Smart Agricultural practices: Evidence from Climate Smart Villages in Nyando Basin, Kenya

Policy strategies for managing food safety risks associated with climate change and agriculture

Managing food safety risks associated with climate change and agriculture necessitates comprehensive policy strategies to safeguard public health, ensure food security, and sustain agricultural productivity. This review delves into the multifaceted challenges posed by climate change on food safety and explores policy approaches aimed at mitigating these risks. Climate change presents a myriad of challenges to food safety, including altered patterns of precipitation, temperature extremes, and increased occurrences of extreme weather events. These changes impact various stages of the food supply chain, from production to consumption, exacerbating existing food safety risks and introducing new ones. Addressing these challenges requires proactive policy strategies that integrate climate adaptation and food safety management. Policy strategies for managing food safety risks associated with climate change encompass a range of measures aimed at enhancing resilience, promoting sustainable agricultural practices, and strengthening food safety systems. One key approach involves the implementation of climate-smart agriculture (CSA) practices, which aim to improve agricultural productivity while minimizing environmental impacts and enhancing resilience to climate change. CSA practices such as crop diversification, soil conservation, and water management can help mitigate the impacts of climate change on food safety by reducing the risk of contamination and enhancing the quality of agricultural products. Furthermore, policies aimed at promoting sustainable food production systems can contribute to mitigating food safety risks associated with climate change. These policies may include incentives for farmers to adopt sustainable farming practices, support for organic farming, and regulations to reduce the use of chemical inputs in agriculture. By promoting environmentally friendly farming practices, such policies can help minimize the occurrence of foodborne pathogens and chemical contaminants in food products, thereby enhancing food safety. In addition to promoting sustainable agricultural practices, policy strategies for managing food safety risks associated with climate change also focus on strengthening food safety systems and enhancing surveillance and monitoring mechanisms. This includes investing in infrastructure and capacity building to improve food safety testing and inspection capabilities, as well as enhancing early warning systems for foodborne disease outbreaks. By strengthening food safety systems, policymakers can better detect and respond to emerging food safety risks exacerbated by climate change, thereby reducing the likelihood of foodborne illness and protecting public health. Furthermore, international collaboration and knowledge sharing are essential components of effective policy strategies for managing food safety risks associated with climate change. Given the global nature of both climate change and the food supply chain, coordinated action at the international level is crucial for addressing shared challenges and exchanging best practices. International organizations such as the World Health Organization (WHO), the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), and the World Organization for Animal Health (OIE) play a critical role in facilitating collaboration and providing technical assistance to countries in developing and implementing effective food safety policies in the context of climate change. Managing food safety risks associated with climate change and agriculture requires a multifaceted approach that integrates climate adaptation, sustainable agriculture, and robust food safety systems. By implementing proactive policy strategies that promote sustainable practices, strengthen food safety systems, and foster international collaboration, policymakers can mitigate the impacts of climate change on food safety and ensure the availability of safe and nutritious food for all.

Farmers resilience to climate variability and perceptions towards adoption of climate smart agricultural practices: evidence from Kersa district, East Hararghe of Ethiopia

Farmers resilience to climate variability and perceptions towards adoption of climate smart agricultural practices: evidence from Kersa district, East Hararghe of Ethiopia

Distributional impact of climate-smart villages on access to savings and credit and adoption of improved climate-smart agricultural practices in the Nyando Basin, Kenya

Adoption of improved livestock breeds requires, as with other climate-smart agricultural (CSA) practices, upfront investments, which might be a significant barrier for smallholders. For this reason, the climate-smart village (CSV) approach not only includes CSA interventions, but also interventions to improve access to savings and credit among smallholders by means of a community-based approach. In this paper we study smallholders in CSVs in Kenya who were encouraged, among others, to adopt improved livestock breeds for crossbreeding with indigenous breeds to improve their resilience to climate change and variability. The farmers were also encouraged to become part of savings and credit groups to improve smallholder access to finance. The objective of this paper is thus to determine the (distributional) impact of CSVs on access to savings and credit and the adoption of improved CSA practices. Due to the as good as random selection of CSVs, we are able to estimate the treatment effects on the treated for the smallholders who decided to participate in the CSA intervention by means of a linear probability model. The analysis is based on a balanced panel of 118 farm households interviewed in 2017, 2019, and 2020. The main findings of this study are that the CSV intervention increased the adoption of improved livestock breeds. It also stimulated the membership of savings and credit groups which in turn stimulated the adoption of improved livestock breeds. These findings point to the importance of community-based savings and loan initiatives to mobilize finance among farmers enabling them to invest in CSA practices. Also, the introduction of improved breeds in CSVs has benefited especially the larger livestock owners. However, the availability of credit is found to have mitigated the concentration of improved livestock ownership since the diffusion of improved livestock in CSVs was somewhat more equitable than the (spontaneous) spill-over diffusion in the non-CSVs (reducing the Gini by 0.04).

Smallholder farmers' vulnerability to climate change and variability: Evidence from three agroecologies in the Upper Blue Nile, Ethiopia

This study delves into the profound impact of climate change on agriculture in Ethiopia, particularly the vulnerabilities faced by smallholder farmers and the resulting implications for poverty. Focusing on three distinct agroecologies, namely: highland, midland, and lowland zones. The study employed a robust methodology, combining a cross-sectional survey, spatial-temporal trend analysis using GIS, and the development of an overall vulnerability index through the balanced weighted average method. The study, encompassing 646 households, combines data from a variety of sources and analytical tools like the vulnerability index, ArcGIS 10.8, and ERDA's IMAGINE 2015. Utilizing the LVI-IPCC scale, the study shows that climate change is an immediate vulnerability in all agroecological zones. It identifies highland areas as the most sensitive and exposed regions, while lowland households are found to be the most vulnerable in terms of overall vulnerabilities. The research reveals specific challenges faced by communities, such as inadequate health facilities and insufficient food and water supplies in both highland and lowland agroecosystems. Additionally, our investigation has observed a significant alteration in land use practices, specifically the shift from communal grazing land to private cultivation and plantations, emphasizing eucalyptus. This alteration enhances the ecosystem's vulnerability to climate disturbances. The study suggests targeted interventions, such as advocating for sustainable land-use practices, afforestation, and adopting climate-smart agriculture practices. It is important to implement policy measures that prioritize conserving and restoring shrubland, grazing land, and natural forests to ensure both long-term socio-economic and ecosystem resilience. The study's nuanced insights are instrumental in understanding the diverse challenges posed by climate change in Ethiopian agriculture, supporting informed policymaking and sustainable interventions.