Climate Change Induced Sea Level Research Articles

Innovative Coastal Structure Solutions And The Role Of Physical Modelling In The Design Process (Dawlish Mog2 Casino)

With the increase in storminess due to climate change induced sea level rise, coastal protection solutions need to be able to contend with larger storms, resulting in larger incident waves, on a more regular basis. Many traditional coastal protection systems like vertical seawalls are proving to be expensive to design for the increased overtopping associated with this change in coastal conditions. As such, engineers are developing more bespoke and innovative design solutions, such as the use of bullnoses and the use of multiple seawalls located one behind the other. Examples of the former can be found in the new Dawlish seawall (see Figure 1) built to replace the old seawall that was damaged during a storm surge in February 2012. For the later, recent examples include the Middelkerke CASINO stilling basin (see Figure 2) and the new energy island being developed by Elia in Belgium (MOG2). The latter consists of two vertical seawalls (see Figure 3), each with a bullnose to reduce overtopping rates. CASINO and MOG2 have in common the novel approach of allowing significant overtopping of the first seawall but instead using the second wall as the safety line, to ensure safe overtopping limits are achieved at this location, thus reducing the required height of the front wall. Moving towards alternative design solutions is associated with its own set of design challenges. The primary challenge is the lack of consistent design guidelines within the field of coastal structures. In Europe, EurOtop is commonly used for overtopping estimates in design (van der Meer et al., 2018). In the US, the Coastal Engineering Manual is used instead (USACE, 2002). Both of these guidelines rely on empirical equations and the variations between the two are primarily a question of preference. However, the empirical equations can have large variations in their solutions (a factor of 3 for the overtopping rate is commonly accepted), the value of which can be heavily dependant on the geometric configuration being used for the seawall, toe protection and bathymetry, limiting their applicability to novel solutions. There is limited research currently available investigating novel geometries such as bullnoses (Dong et al., 2021, Castellino et al., 2018) and stilling basins, and much of the existing literature is limited in scope, thus limiting its wider applicability. In the case of MOG2 and CASINO, the use of the two seawall configuration, combined with drainage solutions, means that there is no suitable guidance in neither of the aforementioned design guides. As a result, coastal designers often turn to physical modelling in order to identify the specific design loads and overtopping values of their proposed design. Physical modelling performed in collaboration with research organisations allows design engineers to benefit from the expertise of researchers working with state-of-the-art techniques informed by the most recent research. However, the physical modelling phase is often not fully integrated into the design process meaning that is it not fully utilised. Integrating physical modelling fully into the design cycle can help to optimise the design as well as identifying the structural loading and verifying the overtopping performance.

Evaluating topsoil salinity via geophysical methods in rice production systems in the Vietnam Mekong Delta

AbstractThe Vietnam Mekong Delta (VMD) is threatened by increasing saltwater intrusion due to diminishing freshwater availability, land subsidence, and climate change induced sea level rise. Through irrigation, saltwater can accumulate in the rice fields and decrease rice production. The study aims at evaluating topsoil salinity and examining a potential link between topsoil salinity and rice production systems in a case study in the Tra Vinh province of the VMD. For this, we applied two geophysical methods, namely, 3D electrical resistivity tomography (ARES II) and electromagnetic induction (EM38‐MK2). 3D ARES II measurements with different electrode spacings were compared with EM38‐MK2 topsoil measurements to evaluate their respective potential for monitoring topsoil salinity on an agricultural scale and the relationship between land‐use types and topsoil salinity. Results show that EM38‐MK2 is a rapid and powerful tool for obtaining high‐resolution topsoil salinity maps for rice fields. With ARES II data, 3D maps up to 40 m depth can be created, but compared with EM38‐MK2 topsoil maps, topsoil salinity was underestimated due to limitations in resolution. Salt contamination of above 300 mS m−1 was found in some double‐cropped rice fields, whereas in triple‐cropped rice fields salinity was below 200 mS m−1. Results clearly show a relation between topsoil salinity and proximity to the saline water sources; however, a clear link between rice production and topsoil salinity could not be established. The study proved that geophysical methods are useful tools for assessing and monitoring topsoil salinity at agricultural fields scale in the VMD.

FLOOD MODELLING USING CSIRO DATA61’S MODELLING TOOLKIT CFAST - A CASE STUDY OF THE RIVERVIEW FAMILY CARAVAN PARK IN VICTORIA

The Riverview Family Caravan Park (RFCP) sits on the eastern bank of the Barwon River Estuary in Ocean Grove, Victoria, Australia and is managed by the Barwon Coast Committee of Management (BCCM). The Park is susceptible to inundation during extreme weather events including catchment flooding from the Barwon River and storm surges from the Bass Straight. To protect from this river inundation there is a levee bank consisting of a rock revetment (seawall) with an elevated shared trail along its crest. This inundation risk will increase with climate change induced sea level rise (SLR), therefore, the BCCM was concerned with quantifying the long-term effectiveness of the elevated shared trail adaptation and to assess proposed flood risk management strategies such as further elevating the shared trail and the implementation of a detention basin.This study used detailed hydrodynamic and hydraulic modelling utilising the City-based Flood Adaptation Solutions Tool (CFAST) developed by CSIRO Data61 (Prakash et al., 2019) to determine the inundation risk posed by different scenarios with different adaptations applied.

A global assessment of estuarine tidal response to sea level rise

Climate change induced sea level rise (SLR) is one of the greatest challenges threatening the sustainable management of estuaries worldwide. Current knowledge regarding SLR and estuarine hydrodynamics is primarily focused on individual case studies, which provides limited guidance on how different estuary typologies will respond to SLR. To expand the current knowledge, this research used an idealised hydrodynamic approach to analyse the tidal range dynamics of 25 real-world estuaries with diverse shapes and boundary conditions, providing insights into estuarine response to SLR-induced tidal variations. Under present-day conditions, short length estuaries with wide entrances, deep waters, strong convergence, macro-tidal conditions, low values of roughness, and low upland river inflows are likely to experience amplified tidal range patterns; whereas lengthy estuaries with narrow entrances, shallow water depths, micro/meso-tidal conditions, high values of roughness, and high upland river inflows often exhibit a mix of dampened-amplified or fully dampened tidal range patterns. Under the effects of SLR, estuarine tidal range dynamics change depending on their present-day tidal range patterns. Where the present-day tidal range pattern is either dampening, a mix of dampening/amplification, or amplification, SLR increases (up to 61 %), moderately increases (up to 26 %), and slightly decreases/increases (up to 5 %) the tidal range of estuaries, respectively. Considering the relationship between an estuary's present-day tidal range pattern and its response to SLR, the presented approach may be useful in providing an initial assessment of SLR effects in estuaries worldwide. This approach may also help to identify sites most impacted by future SLR, and to direct decision-making towards evidence-based management approaches.

Soil resistivity measurements to evaluate subsoil salinity in rice production systems in the Vietnam Mekong Delta

AbstractRice is a staple crop in the Vietnam Mekong Delta (VMD) in which more than half of Vietnam's rice is produced. However, rice production in the VMD is threatened by increasing saltwater intrusion due to land subsidence and climate change induced sea level rise. Saltwater intrusion into lowland areas through the canal system or capillary rise of saline water from near surface saline water tables may result in salt accumulation in the topsoil. Therefore, it is important to disentangle the two effects and their relative importance to implement appropriate strategies for water and salinity management for adapting rice production systems of the VMD to climate change. Here, we report on the possibility of using geoelectrical methods to evaluate the potential threat of subsoil salinity to rice production. To evaluate the level of subsoil salinity, we measured soil electrical resistivity using an ARES II to a depth of 40 m in a case study comprising five locations in the VMD. Electrical resistivity measurements were calibrated to soil types, which were identified through evaluating 1 m core sections obtained by drilling down to 40 m depth. The relationship between drilling data and soil resistivity was determined by applying clustering and principal component analysis. Resistivity values smaller than 3 Ω m were clearly identified as indicative for a saline water table. The results show a direct link between the depth of the saline water table and the proximity to the sea, but not to the rice production system (single, double, or triple cropping). This study proved for the first time the applicability of the electrical resistivity tomography method for identifying groundwater tables and evaluating subsoil salinity on an agricultural field scale in the VMD.

Progress in local climate change adaptation against sea level rise: A comparison of management planning between 2013 and 2022 of Swedish municipalities

This paper uses content analysis of urban planning and guiding documents to research and evaluate relative adaptation approaches by categorising and comparing relevant indicators of progress. The scope of the paper is covering the 33 coastal municipalities that experience particularly exposure to negative consequences of climate change induced sea level rise. The findings indicate that the number of municipalities that address sea level rise has increased notably (∼43%) based on planning documents during the past ten years (2013−2022), which supports international trends of increased attention to urban climate change adaptation. Furthermore, the content analysis qualitatively shows based on a newly developed categorization the large variation in planning documents used by municipalities in terms of purpose and approach. Lastly, a comparison of the municipalities indicates that, while there are notable differences in approach and progress, municipalities with established adaptation plans are similarly structured in terms of ambition and level of detail, and could be considered frontrunners in sea level rise adaptation work. Thus, paper provides - based on a replicable and innovative method - current comparative results about progress in latest practices of planning management, relevant as a potential benchmark and/or blueprint for similar adaptation measures of urban coastal communities worldwide.

Sustainability assessment of Indian Sundarban delta islands using DPSIR framework in the context of natural hazards

Since the inception of the concept, sustainability has been interpreted as encompassing social, economic, and environmental dimensions of it. It is now rapidly shifting from a concept to a measurable state of the human-ecological dynamic system. Recent research is focusing on an integrated approach, due to the absence of a perfectly defined sustainable condition with the presence of some driving forces in the environmental system as a reference. In the recent world, severe natural hazards are increasingly having a fatal impact on societal and economic strata. The islands of Indian Sundarban Delta are the focus of this study as their sustenance is highly at stake due to climate change induced sea level rise, cyclone, tidal surge, and severe land erosion. The main objective of this study is to design a model for obtaining a composite sustainability index of three adjacent islands of western part of Indian Sundarban Delta (ISD) Sagar, Mousani and Ghoramara which are facing severe hazard impact based on the ‘Driving Force-Pressure-State-Impact-Response’ (DPSIR) framework integrating all three dimensions. Indicators have been categorised into state indicators and driving forces under ten profiles chosen from three dimensions of sustainability. The impact score of driving forces over any profile has been considered as a product of values of drivers and states from that profile. The total sustainability score was attained by summarizing the impact scores assigning the same weights and different weights respectively, to the sustainability indicators. The sustainability score shows that Sagar is in a better position than the other two islands.

Modeling present and future ecosystem services and environmental justice within an urban-coastal watershed

Globally, urban-coastal areas are expected to experience substantial landscape shifts as a result of climate change induced sea level rise. Such changes will impact valuable ecosystem services. We employed sea level rise projections and land cover change mapping to develop a model which quantified present-day carbon sequestration, aboveground carbon storage, and belowground carbon storage ecosystem services and predicted the impact of sea level rise and accretion through 2100 on future ecosystem services in the urban-coastal Jamaica Bay, New York (USA) watershed. Our model predicted that future carbon sequestration, aboveground carbon storage, and belowground carbon storage potential in our watershed will be significantly impacted in wetlands and natural coastal-fringe habitat and have losses up to 0.16%, 15%, and 51%, respectively. We paired our present-day ecosystem services model results with data on socio-economic need (access to open space and poverty level of each census tract in the watershed) and used multivariate clustering analysis to identify clusters in which planning and restoration may help to address issues of ecological conservation and environmental justice. Our work addresses the need for better understanding of urban-coastal ecosystem service flows and the potential impact of future landscape change on these services. Our results provide support to increase coastal resilience through informed design, planning, and management of these ecologically and socially significant landscapes.

Impacts of Climate Change Induced Sea Level Rise, Flow Increase and Vegetation Encroachment on Flood Hazard in the Biobío River, Chile

River flooding is one of the most widespread natural disasters. Projections indicate that climate change will increase flood hazard in many areas around the world. In this study, we investigate the individual and combined effects of sea level rise, flow increase and riparian vegetation encroachment on flood hazard in the lower Biobío River, Chile. Results show that each has the potential to individually increase flood hazard in certain areas, and that individual effects can compound. Encroachment of riparian vegetation onto previously sparsely vegetated areas of the floodplain, likely a result of the Chilean megadrought, causes higher flow resistance and increased flooding during large events. Somewhat counterintuitively, drought has therefore led to an increase in flood hazard in the study area. Drought risk for most land areas across the globe is expected to increase with climate change. Potential future vegetation encroachment should therefore be included as a key variable in riverine flood hazard studies.

Instability of Ice Mass Balance and Climate Change Induced Sea Level Rise-An Appraisal

It is found from literature on impact of changes in climate and the resultant rise in sea level, that the scenarios, which are presumed for estimating the rise in Sea Level are stranded on a lot of doubts. Projections by different teams of scientists and real time data from IPCC's predictions do not always match and mostly rather differ. Various models so far considered, grounded on mathematical and statistical methods are anticipated to experience unforeseen variation due to the present unpredictable behaviour of the ice sheets. Studies about the contribution from Antarctica itself towards rise in Sea Level predicts abrupt variations in different projections and accordingly the importance of detailed study on Marine Ice Instability has been highlighted in this paper. The phenomenon related to MISI and MICI has been stressed upon to arrive at more correct projections on Sea Level Rise in coming decades and centuries.

Mitigating Impacts of Climate Change Induced Sea Level Rise by Infrastructure Development: Case of the Maldives

Of the four atoll countries in the world, the Maldives has the lowest average elevation. Therefore, it is likely to be the first country to lose its land when the sea level rises due to climate change. As a countermeasure to sea level rise, the government of the Maldives is constructing an artificial island called Hulhumalé by raising an atoll adjacent to the capital city of Malé. Other atoll countries may employ the same method to adapt to the anticipated sea level rise. There is a concern that people who are forced to relocate to the artificial island will be affected in various ways. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to identify measures to reduce the potential impacts of migration to artificial islands. This study aimed to identify factors that will work effectively to satisfy migrants from outside the Malé region to Hulhumalé. At this stage, sea level rise is not a motivating factor for migration to Hulhumalé. For the time being, enhancing high-income employment and high-level education in Hulhumalé, which are the main motivations for migration, will help sustain voluntary migration. Over the past two decades, rapid economic growth has changed the desire of Maldivians. Hulhumalé is attracting people with its new urban environment and employment opportunities. A small-scale questionnaire survey on the satisfaction level of post-migration life was conducted among the residents of Hulhumalé and the results showed that those who changed their jobs before and after migration were less satisfied with their migration than those who did not. In Hulhumalé, smart cities are being developed and new types of employment are being created. In order to facilitate the smooth migration of residents from remote islands, policies that focus on occupational changes before and after migration are needed, such as public job placement programs that enable migrants to find the same jobs that they had before migration, and job training programs that prepare them for career changes and enable them to adapt smoothly to new jobs. At present, mental health issues among migrants are not a major problem. Strengthening people-to-people networks through the use of information technology (IT) will contribute to smooth migration and resettlement.

Resilience of Coastal Lake Barriers in Poland in Light of Geological and Bathymetric Data and Hydrodynamic Simulations

The paper presents a study on the insufficient resilience of three coastal lake barriers at the central part of the Polish Baltic Sea coast. Environmental qualities of those lakes belonging to the NATURA2000 network dictate efforts aimed at their conservation through the maintenance of the barriers. The use of recently elaborated high resolution geological surveys demonstrated previously underestimated severe sand scarcity and indicated high threats of enhanced erosion, breaching and overtopping of the barriers. Next, the investigation of alongshore variation of nearshore wave energy dissipation, basing on the available bathymetric records and the concept of ordinary and empirical equilibrium profiles, identified potential erosion hot spots along the barriers. Finally, the XBeach model was applied to simulate the effects of rare, heavy storms with the recurrence period of 20 years with and without climate change induced sea level rise. Overall, the results demonstrated high susceptibility of the barriers to frequent fragmentation and allowed for recommendations of protection measures minimizing interference into the natural landscapes. The novelty of the paper consists in the assessment of aftermaths of extreme events by combining recent advances in coastal geology and climate change effects.

Salinity Induced Antioxidant Defense in Roots of Industrial Hemp (IH: Cannabis sativa L.) for Fiber during Seed Germination.

Global climate change induced sea level rise, rainfed agriculture, poor quality irrigation water, and seawater intrusion through interconnected ditches and inland waterways cause soil salinity in inland and coastal areas. To reclaim and prevent further soil erosion, salt tolerant crops are required. Industrial Hemp (IH: Cannabis sativa L.) is used for food, fiber, and medicinal purposes throughout the world. In spite of that, little is known about the salt tolerance mechanisms in IH. Seed germination and development of the roots are the primary events in the life cycle of a plant, which directly interact with soil salinity. Therefore, in vitro germination experiments were conducted on the roots of 5-day-old seedlings using four varieties (V1: CFX-2, V2: Joey, V3: Bialobrzeskie, and V4: Henola) of IH for fiber. Five salinity treatments (0, 50, 80, 100, 150, and 200 mM NaCl) were used to screen the IH varieties on the basis of I: seed germination percent (SGP), II: quantitative morphological observations (root length (RL) and root fresh weight (RFW)), III: oxidative stress indices (hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and lipid peroxidation), and IV: antioxidant defense system comprises of superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), guaiacol peroxidase (GPOD), ascorbate peroxidase (APOD), glutathione reductase (GR). The varieties V1 and V3 showed salt tolerance up to 100 mM by maintaining higher SGP, less reduction in RL and RFW. These roots in V1 and V3 showed lower levels of H2O2 and lipid peroxidation by displaying higher activities of SOD, CAT, GPOD, APOD, and GR while a reciprocal trend was observed in V4. However, roots in V2 showed higher activities of antioxidant enzymes with lower levels of H2O2 and lipid peroxidation, but showed declines in RL and RFW at 80 mM NaCl onward. Roots in V4 were the most susceptible to NaCl stress at 50 mM and onward.

The impact of climate change on the prevalence of mental illness symptoms

Background:The repercussions of climate change threaten the population with an increased prevalence of extreme climate events. We explored the impact of climate change induced sea level rise (SLR) and tropical cyclone (TC) exposure on mental illness symptom prevalence. Methods:Using three datasets, TC exposure scores were calculated for each subject to determine how exposure affects posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), anxiety, and major depressive disorder (MDD) symptom prevalence. Inundation mapping of various SLR and storm surge (SS) scenarios were performed for the susceptible region of Miami-Dade and Broward counties to determine the population impact of flooding. Results:We found an elevated risk of mental illness symptoms from exposure to more high- intensity TCs and identified demographic variables that may contribute to this risk. Furthermore, inundation mapping demonstrated severe and widespread impact of SLR and SS on the mental health of communities. Limitations:This study did not include data directly measuring comorbidity, resilience, preparedness, or ability to adapt to climate change. Also, multiple imputation using chained equations may have been imperfect. Furthermore, there is uncertainty in predicting and mapping SLR and TC intensity, which limits complete confidence in our SS predictions. Conclusion:The impacts of climate change have been frequently studied in terms of physical health, natural disaster prevalence, and economic impacts, but rarely on mental health burden. However, it is vital that national, state, and local governments develop and deploy plans to address mental health needs along with expenditures for protecting infrastructure, the economy, and physical health from the combined effects of SLR and climate change-induced natural disasters.

Effect of salinity on the zinc(II) binding efficiency of siderophore functional groups and implications for salinity tolerance mechanisms in barley

Bacteria, fungi and grasses use siderophores to access micronutrients. Hence, the metal binding efficiency of siderophores is directly related to ecosystem productivity. Salinization of natural solutions, linked to climate change induced sea level rise and changing precipitation patterns, is a serious ecological threat. In this study, we investigate the impact of salinization on the zinc(II) binding efficiency of the major siderophore functional groups, namely the catecholate (for bacterial siderophores), α-hydroxycarboxylate (for plant siderophores; phytosiderophores) and hydroxamate (for fungal siderophores) bidentate motifs. Our analysis suggests that the order of increasing susceptibility of siderophore classes to salinity in terms of their zinc(II) chelating ability is: hydroxamate < catecholate < α-hydroxycarboxylate. Based on this ordering, we predict that plant productivity is more sensitive to salinization than either bacterial or fungal productivity. Finally, we show that previously observed increases in phytosiderophore release by barley plants grown under salt stress in a medium without initial micronutrient deficiencies, are in line with the reduced zinc(II) binding efficiency of the α-hydroxycarboxylate ligand and hence important for the salinity tolerance of whole-plant zinc(II) status.

Taking Stock of Climate Change Induced Sea Level Rise across the West African Coast

The impact of climate induced sea level rise (SLR) is a major threat, likely to continue even if greenhouse gas concentrations were stabilized. SLR will not be geographically uniform. Developing countries are most impacted because of their low adaptive capacity. This study reviewed the most recent scientific evidence of the impact, vulnerability and adaptation of coastal areas in West Africa to climate induced SLR. The results show an increasing rate in SLR for the near and further future. Coastal communities in West Africa are vulnerable to erosion, flooding and inundation resulting in the loss of many coastal lands and ensuing socio-economic consequences. Therefore adaptation is a matter of urgency. Given that relatively little and unbalanced information exists on this subject for those areas, we call for the need to invest resources into studying and protecting coastal communities in West Africa against current and future impacts of climate change and SLR.

A practical guideline how to tackle interdisciplinarity\u2014A synthesis from a post-graduate group project

The comprehensive understanding of increasingly complex global challenges, such as climate change induced sea level rise demands for interdisciplinary research groups. As a result, there is an increasing interest of funding bodies to support interdisciplinary research initiatives. Attempts for interdisciplinary research in such programs often end in research between closely linked disciplines. This is often due to a lack of understanding about how to work interdisciplinarily as a group. Useful practical guidelines have been provided to overcome existing barriers during interdisciplinary integration. Working as an interdisciplinary research group becomes particularly challenging at the doctoral student level. This study reports findings of an interdisciplinary group project in which a group of doctoral students and postdoctoral researchers from various disciplines faced the challenges of reconciling natural, social, and legal aspects of a fictional coastal environmental problem. The research group went through three phases of interdisciplinary integration: (1) comparing disciplines, (2) understanding disciplines, and (3) thinking between disciplines. These phases finally resulted in the development of a practical guideline, including five concepts of interactive integration. A reflective analysis with observations made in existing literature about interdisciplinary integration further supported the feasibility of the practical guideline. It is intended that this practical guideline may help others to leave out pitfalls and to gain a more successful application of interdisciplinarity in their training.

Regional Trends of Sea Level Rise along the Coast of Bangladesh

Bangladesh is becoming increasingly vulnerable to the growing threat of climate change induced sea level rise. Considering the potential severe impacts that sea level rise will have on the coastal population and the country’s economy, it has become very important to know about the regional trends of changing sea levels along the coastlands of Bangladesh. The present study attempted to portray a representative scenario of sea level rise in the coastal regions of Bangladesh. Historic tide gauge records, ranging from 20 to 45 years, were used to determine reliable trends at multiple locations along the coast. Linear regression method was applied to derive the changing trend of annual high, mean and low tidal water levels. The location-specific trends of sea level rise determined in this study can be helpful to planners and policy makers to combat the emerging threat of SLR in a more efficient manner.

Will non-conventional alternative livelihood scheme work in the framework of mangrove dominated Indian Sundarbans?

The Indian Sundarbans at the apex of Bay of Bengal in the lower Gangetic delta is extremely vulnerable to climate change induced Sea Level Rise (SLR). The SLR is more than 3.00 mm yr-1 due to which the intrusion of saline water in the island takes place.

Are values related to culture, identity, community cohesion and sense of place the values most vulnerable to climate change?

Values related to culture, identity, community cohesion and sense of place have sometimes been downplayed in the climate change discourse. However, they have been suggested to be not only important to citizens but the values most vulnerable to climate change. Here we test four empirical consequences of the suggestion: (i) at least 50% of the locations citizens' consider to be the most important locations in their municipality are chosen because they represent these values, (ii) locations representing these values have a high probability of being damaged by climate change induced sea level rise, (iii) citizens for which these values are particularly strongly held less strongly believe in the local effects of climate change, and (iv) citizens for which these values are particularly strongly held less strongly believe that they have experienced the effects of climate change. The tests were made using survey data collected in 2014 from 326 citizens owning property in Höganäs municipality, Sweden, and included values elicited using a new methodology separating instrumental values from end values, and using the former (which strictly speaking should be seen as estimates of usefulness rather than as aims in themselves) as stepping stones to pinpoint the latter, that represent the true interests of the respondents. The results provide the first evidence that, albeit frequent, values related to culture, identity, community cohesion and sense of place are not the values most vulnerable to climate change. This in turn indicates a need to further investigate the vulnerability of these values to climate change, using a methodology that clearly distinguishes between instrumental and end values.