Cleveland Metroparks Zoo Research Articles

Spatiotemporal walking gait kinematics of semi-arboreal red pandas (Ailurus fulgens).

Semi-arboreal mammals must routinely cope with the differing biomechanical challenges of terrestrial versus arboreal locomotion; however, it is not clear to what extent semi-arboreal mammals adjust footfall patterns when moving on different substrates. We opportunistically filmed quadrupedal locomotion (n = 132 walking strides) of semi-arboreal red pandas (Ailurus fulgens; n = 3) housed at Cleveland Metroparks Zoo and examined the effects of substrate type on spatiotemporal gait kinematic variables using linear mixed models. We further investigated the effects of substrate diameter and orientation on arboreal gait kinematics. Red pandas exclusively used lateral sequence (LS) gaits and most frequently utilized LS lateral couplet gaits across terrestrial and arboreal substrates. Red pandas moved significantly slower (p < 0.001), and controlling for speed, had significantly greater relative stride length (p < 0.001), mean stride duration (p = 0.002), mean duty factor (p < 0.001), and mean number of supporting limbs (p < 0.001) during arboreal locomotion. Arboreal strides on inclined substrates were characterized by significantly faster relative speeds and increased limb phase values compared with those horizontal and declined substrates. These kinematics adjustments help to reduce substrate oscillations thereby promoting stability on potentially precarious arboreal substrates. Red panda limb phase values are similar to those of (primarily terrestrial) Carnivora examined to date. Despite the similarity in footfall patterns during arboreal and terrestrial locomotion, flexibility in other kinematic variables is important for semi-arboreal red pandas that must navigate disparate biomechanical challenges inherent to arboreal versus terrestrial locomotion.

Injured giraffes are at higher risk of dying

Animals in the wild can suffer from diseases that can then affect their ability to move. Wildlife is also directly impacted by humans hunting animals for food. In particular, scientists have reported that skin diseases and injuries caused by wire snares, set by people to trap animals in the wild for bush meat, can affect giraffes and their ability to move normally. Most previous research has only been done on captive animals in zoos and with giraffes that suffer from a skin disease that affects their mobility. Recently, an international collaboration between researchers based at universities and zoos in the USA and Namibia recorded videos of giraffes in the wild in Uganda with skin diseases and/or wounds from wire snares.But first, Laura Bernstein-Kurtycz and colleagues collected video of four Masai giraffes (Giraffa tippelskirchi) walking at the Cleveland Metroparks Zoo and used it to quantify the movements of healthy giraffes by measuring how long their stride was, the footfall timing between the back limb and the front limb, how fast the animals were walking, and low long each foot remained in contact with the ground. Additionally, they measured the giraffe's neck movements, up and down as well as back and forth during each stride. After completing their pilot study at the zoo, Michael Brown (Smithsonian National Zoo and Conservation Biology Institute, USA) and J. Evenhuis (Case Western Reserve University, USA) filmed 52 male Nubian giraffes (G. camelopardalis camelopardalis) in the Murchison Falls National Park, Uganda, for more than a year. Bernstein-Kurtycz and colleagues then classified the 52 giraffes into a healthy group, a group with skin disease, a group with wounds from wire snares and a group that had both skin disease and wounds from snares, and analysed their walking movements from the movies.They discovered that skin disease found on the Nubian giraffes did not affect their walking. This might be partially because the disease was found only around the neck region. In contrast, the giraffes that had wounds caused by wire traps had a shorter stride length and slower walking speeds, the limb that was wounded spent less time in contact with the ground bearing weight, and they tended to keep both limbs on the same side of the body in contact with the ground almost simultaneously, possibly to spare the wounded limb from bearing too much weight. In contrast, there were no meaningful differences in the neck movements between the healthy group and any of the groups that had incurred wounds from snares and those that had the skin disease.Traps set by humans have a damaging effect on animals, even if they are not the intended targets. Bernstein-Kurtycz and colleagues have demonstrated that the injuries to these majestic animals caused by wire traps force the giraffes to walk more slowly and unevenly, leaving them vulnerable to attack and predation by lions. Such injuries can also affect their ability to migrate efficiently, locate and compete for mates, and dominant males that are wounded may be unable to protect their mates from males competing to mate with them. Describing how a colleague reported that 257 live giraffes were freed from wire snares in the Murchison Falls National Park between February 2019 and December 2021, the team state that the risk posed by human activity to this endangered population is clearly significant, and conclude that ‘identifying and quantifying potential threats to this population is of global consequence for their conservation’.

Uncovering Zoo Audience Values Necessary to Create Effective Messaging About Illegal Wildlife Trade

The illegal wildlife trade (IWT) is a far-reaching problem with devastating effects on wildlife populations. To engage zoo audiences in environmental behaviors that can help combat IWT, they need to be made aware of what it is, its impacts on wildlife, and how it affects human communities abroad and locally. In fall of 2019, Cleveland Metroparks Zoo initiated a project to investigate the values of target Zoo and public audiences to develop effective messaging about IWT. The first step of this project was to explore knowledge and values participants hold toward wildlife and IWT. Intercept interviews occurred both on grounds at Cleveland Metroparks Zoo, and off Zoo grounds at a nearby university. Project participants in Northeast Ohio had four main values when it came to wildlife and illegal wildlife trade: moral, protection, human centric, and ethical. Future messaging about this topic will be created with these values in mind.

'Bearly' Changing with the Seasons: Bears of Five Species Show Few Behavioral Changes Across Seasons and at Varying Visitor Densities

In natural environments, bear behavior follows seasonal patterns but the zoo environment differs from the natural environment in several ways, including the presence of zoo visitors. Although typically difficult to disentangle, we were able to tease apart the effects of seasonal changes and visitor density on the visibility and behavior of 10 bears representing five species housed at Cleveland Metroparks Zoo due to the disruption caused by COVID-19. We conducted a longitudinal bear behavior monitoring project from June, 2017-November, 2020. Bears were more visible in the spring and in the presence of visitors, locomoted more and were less inactive when large crowds were present, foraged and locomoted more when it was earlier in the day, and locomoted more at higher temperatures. There were limited differences in bear visibility to observers between 2020 (when the zoo was temporarily closed to visitors) and the previous three years. There were no differences in rates of stereotypy or social behavior across seasons, crowds, or daily attendance categories. Based on these limited differences, neither season nor visitor density seemed to have an apparent effect on bear behavior or welfare.

Mortality trends for five species of macropods from a single institution from 1995 to 2016.

Macropods are commonly kept and exhibited species worldwide. Mortality records were reviewed for five species of macropods housed at Cleveland Metroparks Zoo from 1995 to 2016. One hundred sixty-seven deaths occurred including Western grey kangaroo (Macropus fuliginosus) (n = 22), Bennett's wallaby (M. rufogriseus) (n = 64), red kangaroo (M. rufus) (n = 56), wallaroo (M. robustus) (n = 9), and Tammar wallaby (M. eugenii) (n = 16). The leading cause of death was trauma, followed by bronchopneumonia for all species. Gastric dilatation was identified as a concern for red kangaroo. Females lived longer than males across species and were overrepresented by the data set. Oral necrobacillosis and osteomyelitis were health concerns for macropods in this review. Mortality reviews are important as they identifying collection trends and influencing long-term care.

The Effects of Choice-Based Design and Management on the Behavior and Space Use of Zoo-Housed Amur Tigers (Panthera tigris altaica)

ABSTRACT Choice-based design allows animals in human care opportunities to move at will between multiple interconnected spaces. Some evidence suggests providing environmental choice confers benefits to animals, but there is a dearth of research in this area with large carnivores. To understand the effects of this design strategy on large felids, behavioral and space use data were collected on three Amur tigers housed in a new habitat at Cleveland Metroparks Zoo. Data were collected in two conditions: 1) restricted to a single habitat, and 2) access to two habitats. With choice, tigers were less frequently inactive (p = 0.003), and locomoted more frequently (p = 0.009). They also showed different preferences in space use with choice, and a strong preference for overhead runways between habitats (E* = 0.83, E* = 0.78). These results add to what is known about environmental impacts on zoo animal behavior and suggest this design and management strategy may be effective in conferring positive welfare benefits to tigers and other large carnivores.

Biomimicry outside the Classroom

Biomimicry, the process of using nature to guide innovative thinking and development, can be useful in helping students grasp scientific concepts. Teachers interested in incorporating biomimicry into lesson plans might find that experiential learning at informal science institutions (ISIs) with natural models and artifacts is a valuable tool to accompany classroom learning. Visiting these ISIs, students have the opportunity to observe nature in real time and be immersed in inspiration. As students explore these natural models in habitats and exhibits, educators might ask students to consider the interesting features they observe and to creatively consider innovative designs that these features could inspire. For example, an elephant’s trunk might inspire a robotic arm. These direct experiences at ISIs might draw upon students’ innate biophilia to learn more about living organisms and lead to increased creativity and design output. I developed this guide based on my experiences as an informal biomimicry educator and my 2017 keynote address presented at the Annual Docent Conference at Cleveland Metroparks Zoo.

A partnership to build scientific capacity of Rwanda's future conservationists: The Memoirs Program.

The future of primates depends on conservationists in primate range countries having the education and opportunities needed to facilitate conservation efforts. However, most primates are found in countries where conservation is underfunded. Rwanda is home to 14 primate species, with three being listed as endangered on the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List. Their remaining native habitats are scarce, highly fragmented, and surrounded by high human densities. Lacking education opportunities and the loss of qualified individuals following decades of political instability created a need for well-trained conservationists to tackle conservation challenges in Rwanda. The Memoirs Program, a science capacity-building partnership between Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund (DFGF), University of Rwanda (UR), the Rwanda Development Board, and Cleveland Metroparks Zoo, aims to train the next generation of Rwandan conservationists. Annually, the Memoirs Program provides 10-12 top students from the UR Conservation Biology undergraduate program the opportunity to conduct senior research projects (Memoirs) at DFGF addressing conservation issues in and around Rwanda's protected areas. Students receive one-on-one supervision by DFGF scientists and affiliates to supplement UR mentorship, along with targeted teaching modules that reinforce and complement UR curricula. In continuation of the Memoirs Program, participants are offered professional development, employment opportunities, and support to publish their research in peer-reviewed journals. Since inception of the Program in 2003, 123 students have participated with 83% being employed or pursuing higher education degrees in conservation-related fields in Rwanda and the region. Pre- and post-training comparison of oral presentation skills, one of the teaching modules, involving 22 students demonstrated increased post-training performance. The Memoirs Program represents an effective partnership between the government, an international conservation non-governmental organization, and a public higher-learning institution in a developing country to support high-performing students to become tomorrow's conservation leaders. This model could be replicated within Rwanda and in other regions of the world.

The effects of increased hay‐to‐grain ratio on behavior, metabolic health measures, and fecal bacterial communities in four Masai giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis tippelskirchi) at Cleveland Metroparks Zoo

We evaluated whether increasing the hay-to-grain ratio offered to Masai giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis tippelskirchi) at Cleveland Metroparks Zoo would reduce oral stereotypies and alter feeding behaviors, maintain or increase serum calcium-to-phosphorus ratio, decrease serum insulin-to-glucose ratio and salivary insulin, and alter fecal bacterial community structure. Giraffe transitioned to a ∼90:10 hay-to-grain ratio in even increments over 8 weeks. A ration balancer was added during the seventh week of transition to ensure proper mineral and nutrient balance. We collected (1) behavioral data collected approximately daily using instantaneous focal sampling; (2) serum collections every other week for insulin-to-glucose and calcium-to-phosphorus ratio analysis and saliva weekly for insulin analysis; and (3) weekly fecal sample collections to examine changes in bacterial community structure during the 8 weeks preceding and following the diet change. After the diet change, giraffe spent significantly more time feeding and less time performing tongue and mouth stereotypies, people-directed and alert behaviors. Salivary and serum insulin and serum insulin-to-glucose ratio decreased, and fecal bacterial community structure changed significantly. However, serum calcium-to-phosphorus ratio remained >1:1 throughout the study. While further studies are needed to elucidate the nature and implications of the change in fecal bacterial community structure and metabolic hormones, the results of this study show promise for incremental improvements in health and welfare from feeding a higher proportion of forage in the diet.

In-house monitoring of steroid hormone metabolites in urine informs breeding management of a giant anteater (Myrmechophaga tridactyla).

Although numbers of giant anteaters within North American facilities have been steadily increasing for the last 15 years, the population now exhibits an unstable age distribution with genetically valuable individuals nearing reproductive senescence. Contributing to this issue is the Association of Zoos and Aquariums (AZA) described lack of standardization of breeding introduction practices and high risk of female injury occurring during such pairings. This report describes the development of a successful breeding protocol at Cleveland Metroparks Zoo based on hormone monitoring and efficient communication between science and animal management teams that minimizes risk of female injury. By training a female giant anteater for urine sample and body weight data collection, staff members accurately predicted estrus, and timed breeding introductions to facilitate positive interactions between the male and female. Such training also allowed for careful monitoring of two pregnancies through parturition (169-184 days from breeding) and post-partum return to estrus (114-129 days from parturition). Urinary hormone monitoring revealed a sharp progestogen increase averaging >five-fold over basal levels (0.52 ± 0.05 ng/mg creatinine) which was sustained throughout the second half of pregnancy. Mean regular estrous cycle length (n = 14 cycles), was calculated as 46.17 ± 1.39 days, measured as days between estrogen peaks of mean concentration 2.27 ± 0.19 ng/mg creatinine. This report summarizes impressive collaborative efforts among multiple zoological departments to achieve extensive hormonal and body weight monitoring from a female giant anteater, adding valuable information on reproductive parameters, and specifics for novel hormone assay techniques.

Managing repetitive locomotor behaviour and time spent off exhibit in a male black-footed cat (Felis negripes) through exhibit and husbandry modifications

At Cleveland Metroparks Zoo (Cleveland, OH, USA) a male black-footed cat was frequently observed to exhibit repetitive locomotor behaviour and spent a large portion of his day off exhibit. As part of a collaborative effort between animal care and research staff, a stepwise intervention strategy was developed to decrease the subject’s repetitive locomotion and increase his time spent on exhibit. This plan consisted of four phases: baseline, the implementation of a random feeding schedule, exhibit modification, and the implementation of a low-starch diet. The implementation of the low-starch diet resulted in a significant decrease in locomotor behaviour and beginning with the first manipulative phase a qualitative decrease in repetitive locomotor behaviour was observed. Following the implementation of these changes, the subject also significantly decreased his time spent off exhibit. This is the first systematic study addressing an animal welfare concern in a black-footed cat.

Implementing a low‐starch biscuit‐free diet in zoo gorillas: The impact on health

In the wild, western lowland gorillas consume a diet high in fiber and low in caloric density. In contrast, many gorillas in zoos consume a diet that is high-calorie and low in fiber. Some items commonly used in captive gorilla diets contain high levels of starch and sugars, which are minimal in the natural diet of gorillas. There is a growing concern that captive gorillas may qualify as obese. Furthermore, the leading cause of death for adult male gorillas in zoos is heart disease. In humans, a diet that is high in simple carbohydrates is associated with both obesity and the incidence of heart disease. In response to these issues, we implemented a biscuit-free diet (free of biscuits and low in fruit) and measured serum biomarkers of obesity and insulin resistance pre- and post-diet change at three institutions: North Carolina Zoological Garden, Cleveland Metroparks Zoo, and Columbus Zoo and Aquarium. We also added a resistant starch supplement to gorilla diets at two of the above institutions. We anticipated that these diet changes would positively affect biomarkers of obesity and insulin resistance. Both diet manipulations led to a reduction in insulin. Resistant starch also decreased overall serum cholesterol levels. Future research will examine these health changes in a greater number of individuals to determine if the results remain consistent with these preliminary findings.

Volunteers as Products of a Zoo Conservation Education Program

Zoos embrace docents/volunteers as a means of interpreting the threats to wildlife and biodiversity to visitors. To accomplish this, zoos provide docents’ education, training, and work experience. Docents themselves also engage in solitary and social wildlife experiences outside of their volunteer obligations. This study examined what motivates docents and how they change as part of their experience. Results from a mailback questionnaire (91% response rate, n = 365) documented that both altruistic (interpreting wildlife to visitors) and egoistic (learning about wildlife themselves; socializing with like-minded others) motivations were predictive of continuing satisfaction with their volunteer experiences. Docents also reported starting or increasing many conservation behaviors after beginning to volunteer at the Cleveland Metroparks Zoo. Docents with more years of experience tended to report more involvement with conservation behaviors. Results support an environmental socialization framework to explain the impacts of an environmental training program. Implications for future research and practice are presented.

Seasonal and Diurnal Variations in African Elephant (Loxodonta africana) and Black Rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis) Behavior in a Northern Climate Zoo

African elephants (Loxodonta africana) and black rhinoceroses (Diceros bicornis) are charismatic mammals that help draw visitors into zoological institutions. Because they evolved in the same habitat utilizing similar food resources, the two species have many physiological similarities yet behaviorally remain very different. Limitations of the zoo environment, such as constraints on exhibit size, social complexity, and behavior, may be associated with health and behavioral problems seen in both species and thought to be exacerbated in northern, temperate climates. The purpose of this study was to determine how the behavioral patterns of two large-bodied African ungulate species were affected by seasonal changes in a northern climate zoo. The behavior of three African elephants and three black rhinoceroses was observed for one year at Cleveland Metroparks Zoo. We found average resting levels of African elephants and black rhinos were similar to expected values based on data from wild and captive studies. Both species adapted their behavior to cope with high temperatures and increased sun exposure. Increased time spent inside during winter months was associated with decreased investigatory behaviors in elephants and decreased locomotion in rhinos. To increase species-typical behaviors, exhibits should include substrates for dusting, mud wallows, shade structures, and resting sites for all individuals. Time spent feeding may be increased through natural food items such as browse. Indoor exhibits should include environmental variation, enrichment, and adequate space so as to encourage these behaviors. Physiological and health measurements might be measured to determine sufficient levels of exercise for zoo-housed elephants and rhinos.// //

Prevalence of Regurgitation and Reingestion in Orangutans Housed in North American Zoos and an Examination of Factors Influencing its Occurrence in a Single Group of Bornean Orangutans

Very little research has explored regurgitation and reingestion (R/R) in orangutans. We first aimed to determine the prevalence of R/R in the North American zoo population through a survey of accredited institutions. We report the prevalence of R/R in orangutans >4 years of age as 35% with some sex and species differences. Additionally, survey respondents reported fruit and sweet foods as the most common triggers of R/R. We also explored rates of R/R in a single group of Bornean orangutans at Cleveland Metroparks Zoo. We examined the relationship between R/R and feeding schedule and opportunistically observed rates of R/R with and without the presence of browse and sweet foods. We found evidence that R/R is associated with feeding time and that the presence of browse significantly increased the amount of time that animals spent feeding. There was a trend toward decreased R/R when browse was available. We also observed higher rates of R/R when sweet foods were available and we propose that this may have mitigated some of the beneficial effects of browse. We suggest that future studies look further at nutritional influences on R/R behavior.

Case studies of infant development in two guenons, the Wolf's guenon Cercopithecus pogonias wolfi and Allen's swamp monkey Allenopithecus nigroviridis, at Cleveland Metroparks Zoo

Much of what is known about development in cercopithecine primates is derived from studies of baboons Papio sp and macaques Macaca sp. Two closely spaced births at Cleveland Metroparks Zoo enabled us to describe the development of single infants representing two little‐studied species: the Wolf's guenon Cercopithecus pogonias wolfi and Allen's swamp monkey Allenopithecus nigroviridis. Chance provided controls for variables known to affect mother–infant relations including environmental quality, maternal parity and experience, and infant gender. We examined the development of infant behaviour and spatial independence over the first year of life. The infants exhibited developmental trends similar to those reported for other guenons. Both infants were largely capable of feeding themselves by their third month. Both infants gradually spent more time away from their mothers as they aged and both played a dominant role in regulating proximity relationships with their mothers from their first month. Several proximity measures indicate that the Allen's swamp monkey attained spatial independence more rapidly than the Wolf's guenon, a result that could be owing to the higher levels of aggression within the Wolf's guenon group. In addition to informing husbandry practices for guenon breeding groups, these data demonstrate the power of zoos for contributing basic information of this nature.

Behavioral response of captive western lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) to the death of silverbacks in multi‐male groups

In both free-ranging and captive western lowland gorillas, a silverback provides protection and leadership, mediating conflict within a group. In the wild, when a dominant silverback dies the group will disperse or transfer to a solitary male, unless a subsequent male is present to inherit the group. In captivity, studies have focused on groups containing one male and therefore it is unclear how gorillas respond to the death or removal of a silverback in multi-male groups. This study examined the behavior of a bachelor group (Cleveland Metroparks Zoo) and a multi-male, mixed-sex group (Pittsburgh Zoo and PPG Aquarium) following the death of two older silverbacks in 2005. Both of the younger but dominant males maintained their same level of dominance after the death. We predicted that agonism would increase after the death as groups struggled for social stablility. We did observe an increase in both agonism and displacements among the bachelor group, but only observed an increase in displacements among the mixed-sex group. Although we predicted that there would be no change in solitary behavior, both groups decreased feeding and the mixed-sex group increased self-directed behavior post-death. In the bachelor group, self-directed behavior decreased and undesirable behavior increased. We also observed a difference in spatial distance after the death with members of the mixed-sex group becoming more dispersed and members of the bachelor group more converged. This study demonstrates that there is a period of transition for multi-male groups after the death or removal of the oldest silverback. Future research could integrate physiological measures with behavioral analyses before and after the death or removal of a prominent member of the group.

Memories of the Tropics in Industrial Jungles: Constructing Nature, Contesting Nature

This essay examines zoos as a site of struggle in the construction of meanings and memories of human–nature relations. Modern zoos are symbols of imperial power and celebrations of the domination of nature. The grafting of “tropic worlds” onto these monuments of modernity renders the meaning of zoos more ambiguous, reflecting discursive struggles over the meaning of nature, questions about the wisdom of development and progress, recognition of the need for conservation and preservation, and nostalgia for a nature that has been lost. Through a close textual reading of “The Rainforest” at the Cleveland Metroparks Zoo, this essay explores the simulation of nature in zoos and “tropic worlds” in North American cities. These hyperreal spaces contain an extraordinary amount of the history and politics of the culture that constructs them for fascination, edification, conservation, commodification, and salvation. At stake in these simulated natures is not only the constructions of nature as spectacle and animals as commodities, but also the use of knowledge to maintain certain forms of domination and the “writing” of industrial culture's historical memory of nature and human–nature relations.

Factors affecting reproduction in zoo‐housed geoffroy's tamarins(Saguinus geoffroyi)

AbstractThe captive population of Geoffroy's tamarins (Saguinus geoffroyi) has suffered a severe decline over the past 10 years. This population decline is attributed not to a failure to produce offspring, but rather to a failure to successfully rear offspring. To date, no studies have quantitatively examined the behaviors and hormones of this tamarin species in captivity. Therefore, this study was conducted to determine whether there were any discernable factors that could be correlated with failure to rear offspring in S. geoffroyi. Fifteen adult Geoffroy's tamarins (GTs) at the Cleveland Metroparks Zoo (CMZ) were observed by means of instantaneous sampling on a focal animal. In addition, all instances of social behaviors were recorded. A factorial arrangement of treatments was used, as animals were divided between a colony‐housing situation and a non‐colony situation with hand‐reared and mother‐reared animals in both treatments. Repeated‐measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) showed no interactions between the treatments, and no differences between rearing histories for the behaviors studied. However, animals housed in a colony setting exhibited higher levels of aggressive behaviors and lower activity levels compared to those in a non‐colony setting. There also was a trend for colony‐housed animals to huddle, scent‐mark, and exhibit sexual behaviors more often than non‐colony animals. First‐morning‐void urine samples were collected once per week, and assays for E1C and PdG indicated that reproduction was not being suppressed. ANOVA conducted on samples assayed for excreted cortisol showed no differences in mean cortisol concentration by rearing histories or housing conditions. While these physiological indicators reveal no signs of stress, high levels of aggressive and territorial behaviors indicate social unrest in the colony‐housed condition, which may be contributing to the poor reproductive success of those individuals. Zoo Biol 22:545–559, 2003. © 2003 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.

Interpreting Urban Geology

Urban sites are advantageous locations for geological instruction because they provide a high diversity of easily accessible geological materials. A series of geologic field trips to urban settings has been developed by The Cleveland Museum of Natural History. The trips are designed for students, educators, and the general public. They include visits to downtown Cleveland, The Cleveland Museum of Art, University Circle (a cultural area), the Cleveland Metroparks Zoo, a historic older neighborhood, two historic cemeteries, and a monument company. The trips have been among the most popular of the Museum's field-trip offerings, appealing to a more diverse audience than more traditional field trips to non-urban sites. They have proved to be effective and enjoyable ways of conveying a wide variety of geological information to participants of all levels and backgrounds. The trips, and related programs and publications, have also stimulated favorable publicity and cooperation with other institutions.