Clean Energy Industries Research Articles

Urine is better for rare earth elements bimonitoring in long-term exposed population: An exposure-response relationship study

With the soaring use of rare earth elements (REEs) worldwidely in high-technology and clean energy industries, there were growing concerns for adverse health effect from the REEs exposure. However, there is a lack of biomonitoring research concerning both urine and blood in population with definite exposure. We performed a biomonitoring study that involved 103 REEs exposed males and 110 males as non-REEs exposed controls. We measured the levels of REEs in environment and urine and blood samples from participants, and explored the exposure-response relationship between REEs in environment and body fluids. The effects of exposure duration and smoking status on the internal exposure level of REEs were also investigated. The results showed environmental REEs level of exposure group was significantly higher than that of control group (range of geometric mean of exposure vs. control: 1.08-4.07 × 104 ng/m3 vs. <LOD-2.16 × 102 ng/m3). Six elements with detection rates higher than 60% in blood or urine samples were lanthanum (La), cerium (Ce), praseodymium (Pr), neodymium (Nd), samarium (Sm), gadolinium (Gd). We found the REEs concentrations both in urine and blood of exposure population were significantly higher than controls, median range of the above 6 elements of urine and blood was 0.02–1.06 μmol/mol vs. <LOD-0.01 μmol/mol creatinine and 0.01–0.79 μg/L vs. <LOD-0.38 μg/L. The correlations between both blood and urine level of REEs and environment level showed significant. The correlation coefficients with urine levels are higher than with blood. Biomonitoring results showed good exposure-response relationship in urine REEs, while no positive response in blood samples. Smoking status, drinking status and years of exposure showed little effect on the level of REEs. Our results suggested that both blood and urine can be used to monitor REEs exposure, while urinary REEs is promising for risk assessment in population.

Silica-Biomacromolecule Interactions: Toward a Mechanistic Understanding of Silicification.

Silica-organic composites are receiving renewed attention for their versatility and environmentally benign compositions. Of particular interest is how macromolecules interact with aqueous silica to produce functional materials that confer remarkable physical properties to living organisms. This Review first examines silicification in organisms and the biomacromolecule properties proposed to modulate these reactions. We then highlight findings from silicification studies organized by major classes of biomacromolecules. Most investigations are qualitative, using disparate experimental and analytical methods and minimally characterized materials. Many findings are contradictory and, altogether, demonstrate that a consistent picture of biomacromolecule-Si interactions has not emerged. However, the collective evidence shows that functional groups, rather than molecular classes, are key to understanding macromolecule controls on mineralization. With recent advances in biopolymer chemistry, there are new opportunities for hypothesis-based studies that use quantitative experimental methods to decipher how macromolecule functional group chemistry and configuration influence thermodynamic and kinetic barriers to silicification. Harnessing the principles of silica-macromolecule interactions holds promise for biocomposites with specialized applications from biomedical and clean energy industries to other material-dependent industries.

(Invited) Empowering Clean Energy Manufacturers with Low-Temperature Plasma: A Novel Approach to Real-Time Thin Film Metrology

Thin films, or micro- and nano-scale materials with unique functional properties, enable many clean energy industries, such as lithium-ion batteries, solar cells, and carbon conversion. Minimal-waste manufacturing of high-performance thin films will be vital for achieving society’s net-zero carbon emission goals. Because existing thin film sensors cannot operate within most sections of manufacturing lines, manufacturers often complete hundreds of processing steps before they can test (a small portion of) their products and detect problems. Current thin-film manufacturing thus often yields many low-quality products, or off-spec products that must be discarded. A real-time, in-situ metrology strategy can create unprecedented opportunities for implementation of smart manufacturing practices and advanced process control solutions to realize higher thin film throughput and performance.SirenOpt has developed a real-time low-temperature plasma-based thin film metrology sensor. The sensor is compact, can be integrated within existing manufacturing lines, and can collect multiple thin film property measurements (such as thickness with a precision of 1/10th of a nanometer, density, resistivity, chemical composition, and contaminate identification) in parallel and in real-time, thus allowing for the collection of critical manufacturing data that is otherwise unobtainable. SirenOpt is currently applying the sensor to industrial thin film coating processes such as Lithium-ion battery electrodes, where this flexible sensor can be used to accelerate R&D and process optimization, improve quality control, and enable real-time process control.

Manufacturing of Fe-Ni Composite Oxide Powder and Leaching Process Optimization Via Nickel Pig Iron(NPI) Raw Materials

The lithium-ion battery industry is experiencing rapid growth in response to the widespread adoption of electric vehicles, leading to a significant increase in demand for high-purity nickel compounds, a critical raw material. As a result, ensuring a smooth supply of nickel resources poses a critical challenge not only for the battery industry but also for enhancing the competitiveness of future clean energy industries. High-purity nickel production is predominantly carried out via the high-pressure acid leach (HPAL) process, which extracts nickel from nickel laterite ores. However, this process involves substantial initial capital investment and consumes significant energy due to high temperatures, high pressure, and strong acids. Additionally, this method is associated with environmental concerns such as water and soil pollution. Furthermore, an alternative approach is proposed, which involves adding sulfur to low-grade nickel pig iron (NPI) to produce the nickel matte, followed by an iron removal process to generate high-purity nickel sulfide. However, this method presents challenges such as waste generation from the iron removal process, high carbon emissions, and the production of large amounts of greenhouse gases. This study explored using anodic oxidation to induce oxidative reactions in NPI to nano-powder. This approach improves nickel recovery efficiency by increasing the surface area compared to the bulk state, allowing leaching at room temperature and atmospheric pressure. As a result, the process becomes simpler, with lower initial capital investment, making it economically viable. Additionally, the process requires less energy consumption, allowing for achieving the breakeven point at an earlier stage. This study compared the characteristics of the nano-powderized NPI under different voltage and current ranges. Furthermore, the nickel leaching efficiency was assessed based on leaching solution conditions.

Research on coupling coordination and spatial-temporal evolution of hydrogen energy industry in hebei province based on R-P-D chain

In order to promote the sustainable development of the hydrogen energy industry in Hebei Province, this paper investigates the coordinated industrial coupling and spatio-temporal evolution of the "resource conditions-project layout-user demand (R-P-D)" chain within the hydrogen energy industry in Hebei Province. First, a fitness model for the hydrogen energy industry is formulated based on the "(R-P-D)" chain perspective, and a comprehensive evaluation is performed using the AHP entropy weighting method.Subsequently, coupling coordination model of resource condition-project layout (R–P), resource condition-user demand (R-D), project layout-user demand (P-D), and R-P-D chain are constructed. The coupling coordination degree data of the system are then linked with the spatial unit for spatiotemporal evolution and analysis using ArcGIS software. The findings indicate that cities with high levels of economic development, advanced industrialization, abundant renewable energy resources, and well-developed clean energy industries tend to exhibit more harmonious development in the hydrogen energy industry.

Empirical analysis of the impact of China’s carbon emissions trading policy using provincial-level data

Investigating the impact of carbon emissions trading policy and elucidating the underlying mechanisms are crucial for enhancing policy effectiveness and refining related systems. This study examines the impact of carbon emissions trading policy by constructing a difference-in-difference model utilizing unbalanced panel data from China’s provinces spanning the period from 2005 to 2019. Additionally, a mediating effect model is employed to delve into the underlying mechanisms. The key findings are as follows: Firstly, the implementation of carbon emissions trading policy has a notable inhibitory impact on carbon emissions. Secondly, both the upgrading of industrial structure and the reduction of energy intensity play mediating roles in carbon emissions reduction. However, the development of clean energy industries does not exhibit a significant mediating effect. In conclusion, this study offers policy recommendations aimed at facilitating carbon reduction. These include enhancing the market-based trading mechanism for carbon emissions, optimizing and upgrading industrial structures, fostering innovation in green and low-carbon technologies, and promoting the development and utilization of clean energy.

Pilot-scale phosphorus recovery from biogas slurry to produce battery-grade FePO4: Chemical enhanced primary treatment coupled adsorption process

Recovering phosphorus (P) from wastewater was expected to bring win–win profits for environmental protection and clean energy industries. Ferric phosphate (FePO4) was a key raw material for lithium-ion battery production for new energy vehicles, which was a more valuable and promising product for recovering P from wastewater. There were challenges in recovering high-purity FePO4 from wastewater with complex components, especially in achieving large-scale recovery. Here, a pilot-scale platform, the Chemical Enhanced Primary Treatment (CEPT) coupled Fe@aminated-polyacrylonitrile (Fe-NH2-PAN) adsorption, was established for recovering battery-grade FePO4 from biogas slurry. The platform stably removed over 80% of PO43− from biogas slurry during long-term operation, the removed PO43− was enriched in chemical sludge and Fe-NH2-PAN, and then was leached into H2SO4 solution. FePO4 crystal was successfully recovered from the leaching solution (822.35 ± 15.91 mg/L PO43−) with a recovery rate of over 75%. Importantly, the lithium-ion battery prepared from recovered FePO4 exhibited excellent and stable electrochemical performance (with stable discharge specific capacity of 100.4–106.7 mAh/g at 1.0 C). This study provides a new path for large-scale P recovery in WWTPs.

The asymmetric impacts of artificial intelligence and oil shocks on clean energy industries by considering COVID-19

Can grand environmental goals still be achieved when the 1.5 °C climate target and Industry 4.0 encounter the COVID-19 pandemic? Exploring the impacts of artificial intelligence (AI) and crude oil shocks as critical drivers on clean energy stocks may provide fresh insights to tackle this question. This paper explores the asymmetric impacts of positive and negative changes in the AI index and different oil shocks on clean energy stock sub-sectors by adopting the non-linear autoregressive distributed lag (NARDL) model. Our investigation of a sample reveals a significant positive long-run relationship between the AI index and clean energy stocks. Additionally, the impacts of AI and oil shocks on clean energy stocks vary broadly across different sub-sectors. The COVID-19 pandemic has strengthened the cointegration relationship and reduced the long- or short-term asymmetry among the AI index and clean energy stocks. This study incorporates the AI index into the research framework of oil and clean energy, which has not been explored in previous research, and is of significant importance for clean energy investment and provides guidance for market participants.

Research Progress on Ultra-Low Temperature Steels: A Review on Their Composition, Microstructure, and Mechanical Properties

To address global environmental concerns and reduce carbon dioxide emissions, countries worldwide are prioritizing the development of green, eco-friendly, and low-carbon energy sources. This emphasis has led to the growing importance of promoting clean energy industries like hydrogen energy and natural gas. These gases are typically stored and transported at cryogenic temperatures, making ultra-low temperature alloys indispensable as essential materials for the storage and transportation of liquid gas energy. With the temperature decreasing from room temperature (RT) to liquid nitrogen temperature (LNT), the dominant deformation mechanism in high-manganese steels undergoes a transformation from dislocation slip to deformation twinning, resulting in exceptional cryogenic mechanical properties. Consequently, high-manganese steel has emerged as an excellent material candidate for cryogenic applications. This report focuses on establishing the composition of high-manganese steel suitable for cryogenic applications and provides a comprehensive review of its microstructure and mechanical properties at both RT and LNT. Furthermore, it offers a prospective outlook on the future development of cryogenic high-manganese steels.

Development of a passive strategy for buildings’ sustainability using green roofs techniques in Taif City, Saudi Arabia

Buildings’ sustainability can strongly contribute towards meeting the Sustainable Development Goals which set forth a challenge for humanity in existing and modern Saudi societies. Recently, large numbers of initiatives and strategies have been recently developed and adopted with a focus on the green architecture which relates the real estate and clean energy industries in Saudi Arabia. This is considered as an important step to the diversity in the Saudi economy, which is not built on oil revenues and towards the achievement of Saudi Arabia’s vision 2030. Consequently, the application of different passive sustainability strategies in residential building projects, e.g., green roofs technology, can boost sustainable building ratings. In the present paper, the feasibility and probable health and environmental benefits associated with green roofs technology in Saudi residential buildings have been described. Moreover, different perspectives have been presented related to the green roofs industry, such as: types, recent technology, and the current challenges. In addition, the contributions of green roofs to the sustainable building’s certification via Saudi rating system, MOSTADAM, has been explored. The method adopted in the present research is based on relating the characteristics of the green roof technology and its environmental effects to the different categories of the “Mostadam” rating system. It is found that the green roofs technology can boost the sustainable building ratings through contribution to the major categories of MOSTADAM rating system a potential of 32% credits total. This encourages stakeholders to apply green roofs in Saudi residential buildings supporting the sustainable development goals of the Saudi government’s ongoing initiatives that advocates for more sustainable and resilient cities considering vision 2030. Moreover, the present study would assist the “Mostadam” responsible in evaluating the sustainable buildings projects and making the right decisions on such projects.

The role of financial markets in the energy transition: an analysis of investment trends and opportunities in renewable energy and clean technology.

The crucial role that financial markets have played in accelerating the shift to clean energy and renewable sources of energy is examined in this article. Thus, we built global essential mineral trade networks from 1999 to 2020 using a complex network technique to analyze their topological properties quantitatively. The impact of crucial mineral trade patterns on the growth of renewable energy is then examined using the dynamic econometric model, along with the mediating function of technological advancement in renewable energy. It analyzes investment patterns and possibilities in various industries while underlining the critical role that financial systems play in determining the speed and scope of the change. The research uses data from reliable sources and thoroughly analyzes the body of current literature. The data shows that investments in clean technologies and renewable energy have significantly increased recently. This increase may be ascribed to several causes, including favorable governmental regulations, falling renewable energy technology prices, and rising environmental consciousness among the general people. Venture capital, private equity, public markets, and specialist funds are just a few examples of financial markets that have been instrumental in directing funding to these industries. The report also reveals a change in how money is invested in the energy industry, with conventional investments in fossil fuels declining and investments in renewable energy growing significantly. The profitability and appeal of renewable energy projects, which are now competitive with traditional energy sources, are driving this transformation. The report also identifies new investment possibilities in clean technology, including smart infrastructure, grid modernization, and energy storage. Due to their potential to improve the effectiveness, dependability, and sustainability of energy systems, these areas are expanding. The results highlight the need to establish long-term stability and incentives for investment in the clean technology and renewable energy industries. Government assistance has considerably aided investor confidence, including carbon pricing systems, tax incentives, and subsidies for renewable energy sources. This analysis emphasizes how critical financial markets are to accelerating the energy transition. Financial markets may hasten the transition to a sustainable energy system by directing investments into clean technologies and renewable energy industries. To take advantage of the investment possibilities given by the energy transition, policymakers, investors, and industry stakeholders must work together.

How Will China's Clean Energy Industry Develop?

This paper mainly takes China's clearer energy industry as the research object, and adopts the methods of literature analysis, comparative analysis and data analysis. The research compares and analyzes the current situation and evolution of the global and Chinese clearer power profession, and draws out the overall characteristics of the evolution and development of China’s clean energy industry. From three different levels of clearer power types, it specifically analyzes three major clean energy industries: solar energy industry, clean coal industry and fuel cell industry. The study found that with the continuous development of energy technology and profession, China’s clean energy industry is gradually opening up, and clean power discourse in the international market will continue to improve. Based on these conclusions, China’s clean energy industry needs cooperation, especially exploring the mode of mixed ownership between private and state-owned enterprises. By lowering the threshold for market access, it will greatly encourage entrepreneurship and innovation in the energy field, and jointly promote the globalization of China's clean energy industry.

Are tax revenue recycling schemes based on industry-differentiated carbon tax conducive to realizing the “double dividend”?

Carbon tax policies based on industry differences can produce better emission reductions, but their economic losses have not been fully considered. To guarantee the fairness and economic effectiveness of the carbon emission reduction, this paper explores the policy impacts of revenue recycling schemes based on industry-differentiated carbon taxes using a dynamic CGE model. The findings show that revenue recycling schemes can effectively mitigate the negative macroeconomic and industry output impacts of industry-differentiated carbon taxes, but also affects their carbon reduction effects. The indirect carbon tax revenue recycling schemes are more beneficial than the direct recycling schemes in reducing GDP loss, and corporate income tax reduction is most effective in mitigating the reduction in fixed asset investment. The applicability of different carbon tax revenue recycling schemes varies across industries, and in general corporate income tax reduction and subsidies to clean energy industries are more beneficial to carbon emission reduction, and indirect carbon tax revenue recycling schemes that reduce residential and corporate income taxes can achieve stronger “double dividend”. This paper suggests that China should adopt a industry-differentiated carbon tax with a fair distribution of emission reduction responsibilities, while achieving a “double dividend” through appropriate revenue recycling schemes.

Inflation Reduction Act Incentivizes Utilities to Use Digital Tools for Participation in Energy Efficiency Programs

The Inflation Reduction Act (IRA), signed into law on August 16, 2022, authorizes $500 billion in new spending and tax breaks for the clean energy and healthcare industries. Clean energy funding, totaling approximately $370 billion, is allocated to help achieve the Biden Administration's near‐term goal of reducing carbon emissions by 40 percent by 2030. The clean energy funding focuses on deploying readily available technologies that developers, companies, and consumers can adopt immediately to help achieve these goals. Investment tax credits and production tax credits exist across the energy efficiency value chain to maximize impact. On the energy production side, the IRA extends existing tax credits and introduces new credits for renewable energy production. Tax credits for consumers and businesses are intended to increase efficiency of energy use and as a result decrease carbon emissions.

Place-Based Solutions for Net Zero: Gender Considerations on ‘Green’ Skills

There is a global effort towards transitioning to a zero or low-carbon economy due to climate change and the current energy crises. This requires a shift in socio-technical systems and cross collaboration amidst sectors. The move to a clean energy-based economy also involves the creation of a broad range of skills, the upskilling and reskilling of the existing workforce, and providing opportunities for training. While many critical analyses of emerging decarbonisation or green skills, focus on issues of clean energy transition and the distribution of opportunities between fossil fuel-based and clean energy industries, there is limited critical analysis of justice and equality regarding the distribution of opportunities for developing key green skills for place-based decarbonisation.&#x0D; There is evidence of asymmetric power relations and gender inequalities regarding the acquisition of skills, employment opportunities, kinds of jobs and pay gap which disproportionately affect women. This paper presents compelling evidence of hegemonic masculinisation within the energy industry; this tendency is now mirrored in ecological industries and technologies, including within the renewable energy sector, leading to an ‘eco-masculinisation’ of the sector.&#x0D; Just transition principles promote a fair distribution of resources and the representation of vulnerable groups, including women and minorities. By relying on local assets and resources, including human resources, place-based approaches to green skills could address local communities’ needs while strengthening their resilience. These processes are pivotal to a fair and equitable transition. By explicitly articulating the context of place in understanding the gender(ed) dynamics of decarbonisation and skills, the authors identify and reflect on an innovative way of understanding the intersections between infrastructures, skills, and masculinisation in the transition to low zero carbon.

The United Kingdom’s policy on strategic industries

Standfirst: In 2021, the United Kingdom abandoned plans to formulate an overarching industrial strategy and instead began releasing a series of sector-specific strategies intended to raise the country’s global competitiveness in science and technology. The Spring Budget, launched by the government in March 2023, aims to make investments and policy changes that will help secure the UK’s existing advantages in the digital and clean-energy industries. Due to fiscal constraints, however, the government is more focused on incentivising private investment than increasing public support for scientific research and development.

End-to-End Lifecycle Considerations for Minerals Powering Critical Technologies

The United States (U.S.) is poised for a new wave of industrialization as it prepares to scale up domestic semiconductor manufacturing and widely implement clean energy infrastructure. With widespread application spaces beyond clean energy, such as communication, computing, healthcare, national security, and transportation, the scope of these endeavors is expected to be massive and long-term. The success of these initiatives is highly dependent on the non-renewable minerals used in critical technologies necessitating the adaptation of current business and legislative models to accommodate future long-term extraction and implementation needs. Without these adaptations, advancements will likely be made at the expense of taxpayers, vulnerable communities, and ecological preservation efforts. Here we propose policy recommendations to the U.S. federal government to minimize environmental and socio-economic harm resulting from metal mining and promote integration of circular economy principles in electronic product design. These recommendations are expected to have both domestic and international impacts in reducing harmful waste and increasing product longevity. Furthermore, these recommendations align with ensuring long-term U.S. leadership in the semiconductor and clean energy industries.

The Energy Transition, Protectionism and Transatlantic Relations

US President Joe Biden has worked to repair the damage done to the transatlantic relationship by his predecessor, quickly realigning the United States with Europe on issues of energy and climate change. However, the US Inflation Reduction Act (IRA) of 2022 introduced a raft of protectionist subsidies for US clean-energy industries and reignited tensions between the US and the European Union. The EU has warned that the IRA could damage the bloc’s industry and American critics suggest the act may trigger a new US–EU trade war. The Biden administration’s geopolitical internationalism is at odds with its geo-economic nationalism. The fact remains, however, that Europe is unlikely to be severely affected by the IRA. Moreover, European political leaders have threatened more aggressive responses to the IRA than they can deliver. A trade war is unlikely. It is more likely that booming green industries in the EU and US will open new avenues to cooperation between them.

Research on the Structural Optimization of the Clean Energy Industry in the Context of Dual Carbon Strategy—A Case Study of Sichuan Province, China

As a major province for hydroelectric power in China, Sichuan Province has witnessed a great amount of seasonal characteristics in its hydroelectric power, endowing the clean energy industry in Sichuan with the characteristics of unstable supply in different seasons, strong power transmission capacity, and low production capacity of other non-fossil energy sources (except hydroelectric power). In this study, the mathematical model method was used to construct a structural optimization model of the clean energy industry in Sichuan Province, and to enable a quantitative analysis of the rationalization of the clean energy industrial structure in Sichuan Province. The results are proved from the cost-effectiveness of low carbon emission that hydroelectric power &gt; wind power &gt; photovoltaic power &gt; natural gas &gt; coal &gt; oil. This study shall find the theoretical structure of the clean energy industry in Sichuan Province in 2030 with a prediction of Sichuan Province’s total future energy output and a constraint of its industrial structure model of clean energy. This paper suggests that Sichuan Province should give priority to the development of non-fossil energy sources, increase the development and utilization of power transmission channels in wet seasons, and develop clean energy and high energy consumption industries and the construction of pumped storage power stations, so as to reduce and avoid the waste of energy resources. It is also suggested that Sichuan Province should focus on developing clean energy with the capability of peak shaving, such as hydrogen energy and natural gas, while developing smart grid and long-distance transmission technology to strengthen energy conservation and emissions-reduced power generation. On this basis, Sichuan will focus on the development and utilization of natural gas as an alternative to high-carbon energy, with a view to optimizing its industrial structure of clean energy and helping China achieve the dual-carbon goals.

Comments: Energy Transition and Labor Transition

Canada is ramping up its commitment to energy transition with its “just” transition bill. And with it comes concern about employment in the oil and gas sector. The proposed bill will be introduced early this year with the intent to help workers in the oil and gas sector move into clean energy jobs by defining principles to guide decisions and creating jobs. Natural Resources Minister Jonathan Wilkinson has described the bill as an action plan for “sustainable jobs.” “I said it many times publicly that I do not believe that the challenge we are going to face is that there are workers who are displaced that will not find other good-paying jobs. I am actually quite worried that there are so many opportunities … we will not have enough workers to fill the jobs,” Wilkinson recently told CBC News. Gil McGowan, president of the Alberta Federation of Labor, told CBC News, “This shouldn’t be a political issue, this is an issue about what’s really happening in the global economy.” He added that if done right, the bill could incentivize technologies like carbon capture and hydrogen. But when it comes to workers’ compensation in oil and gas vs. clean energy, how does it compare? The answer depends on the roles of workers and their locations, qualifications, experience, and training. An ex-coal miner who now runs a government-funded Just Transition center supporting former Canadian coal workers summed it up: “It’s 100% not that simple ... to go from making C$100,000 to C$40,000 plays a big part in the decision making that comes with the idea of losing your livelihood.” Adam Legge, president of the Business Council of Alberta, wrote in November 2020 in CBC Calgary that more worker transition programs are needed. He highlighted the interest in the Calgary Economic Development EDGE UP program which retrains people displaced from oil and gas into high-growth digital technology opportunities. The program saw 1,300 applicants for 100 available slots. Another program, AltaML Applied AI Lab, had 500-plus applications for its first cohort of eight participants for a 16-week course. On a global level, in the International Energy Agency’s (IEA) inaugural World Energy Employment report published in September 2022, Dr. Fatih Birol, executive director of IEA, highlighted the acceleration of clean energy transitions and securing of energy supply chains prompted by Russia’s invasion of Ukraine. He wrote, “Its success will depend a great deal on the actions governments, industry, labor representatives, and educators take to prepare the energy workforce of tomorrow. Above all, it will depend on the capable workers responsible for designing, building, operating, and overseeing the new energy economy.” The energy sector requires more highly skilled workers than others, with 45% of the workforce requiring some degree of tertiary education, from university degrees to vocational certifications. On average, the sector also sees higher wages. The report found oil supply has the highest employment among fossil fuels, at almost 8 million workers in 2019. Five million work in extraction and production, and around 1.4 million each in transport and refineries. Nearly 20% of the jobs are in the Middle East; 15% each in North America and Africa. Refining accounts for 1.4 million, concentrated in the Asia Pacific region. Skills of oil and gas workers are in demand by other energy sectors because of the applicability of their higher-level expertise. For example, petroleum and gas engineering skills in seismic interpretation, drilling and completions, reservoir, and flow assurance are applicable to geothermal. Chemical engineers in refineries can apply their expertise to green fuels and hydrogen. The report added, “Skilled workers can transfer to deepwater offshore wind, carbon capture and storage, or midstream hydrogen pipeline infrastructure, among many other job disciplines.” Emerging clean energy industries such as hydrogen and CCUS today constitute small portions of the energy workforce but are important areas of growth and demand highly skilled workers to establish and expand these industries. About 35,000 people work in hydrogen production today, according to the IEA report. The sector is expected to see high growth and requires skills that are compatible with those of oil and gas workers, with the addition of specialized safety training. The worlds’ first engineering courses in hydrogen safety have been developed by the European HySafe consortium. For those workers who must or wish to seek alternative opportunities, will their outcomes match or surpass their current roles? There are no guarantees or promises. The determining factors are many. Even with all things being equal such as the freedom and opportunity to choose, education, training, etc.—the individual will make the final call.