Classroom Process Quality Research Articles

Examining the Validity of an Observational Tool of Classroom Support for Children’s Engagement in Learning

AbstractHigh-quality early childhood education provides children with opportunities for engaged learning. Yet there are currently no classroom-level measures that focus specifically on how teachers support engagement in the classroom, a key underlying dimension of playful learning. We introduce the Playful Learning Across the Years (PLAY) observational tool, a new tool designed to assess support for engaged learning in early childhood classrooms. Using data from videos of Ghanaian preprimary classrooms (N = 420) coded using the tool, we conduct factor analysis to assess the underlying domains of engaged learning opportunities at the classroom-level and find three domains representing support for exploration, social connectedness, and positive emotional climate. We then examine if these domains are sensitive to impacts of a teacher professional development program and find that the program had large impacts on all three domains (d = 0.55–1.01). Finally, we explore concurrent validity of the tool using classroom process quality scores from a separate classroom observational tool and teacher characteristics and find some evidence from each. This study aims to systematically operationalize opportunities for engaged learning at the classroom-level in an under-studied context, with implications for measuring quality and promoting children’s school readiness in early educational settings globally.

Teacher beliefs, classroom process quality, and student engagement in the smart classroom learning environment: A multilevel analysis

As smart classroom learning environments enable teaching and learning processes, scholars have examined how classroom process quality affects student engagement in secondary education. Smart classroom learning environments provide a prominent signpost for how teaching and learning will be transformed to accommodate new technologies. However, a holistic model for smart classroom learning environments seems warranted. This study fills this knowledge gap by emphasizing both instructional quality and the use of technology as critical indicators of classroom process quality. A total of 1825 secondary school students and their 38 teachers participated in the study. By using teacher and student questionnaires, the relationship among teacher beliefs, classroom process quality, and student engagement in smart classroom learning environments was investigated. Three components of classroom process quality were distinguished: cognitive activation, connectedness, and the use of technology. Results from a multilevel regression analysis revealed that students' shared perceptions of connectedness and the use of technology were linked to student engagement. Unexpectedly, it was teacher education level rather than teacher beliefs that were associated with classroom process quality. Classroom process quality could also be influenced by teacher gender and teaching grade. Students' individual perceptions of three domains of classroom process quality were related to their engagement and boys reported significantly higher engagement than girls. Multilevel mediation analysis results showed that the relationships between teacher education level and student engagement were influenced by students' shared perceptions of connectedness and the use of technology. These findings contribute to a better understanding of how to best develop engaging smart classroom learning environments, and suggestions for future research are provided.

Beyond Neighborhood Socioeconomic Status: Exploring the Role of Neighborhood Resources for Preschool Classroom Quality and Early Childhood Development.

The neighborhood literature consistently documents associations between neighborhood socioeconomic status (SES) and child development. Yet, this approach may miss important heterogeneity in neighborhood resources (e.g., libraries, doctors' offices) that have important implications for children. Moreover, the mechanisms that explain the relation between neighborhood characteristics and child outcomes are poorly understood. Using a sample of 955 children situated in preschool neighborhoods across nine United States cities, the present study aimed to (1) describe the relation between neighborhood SES and resources among our sample neighborhoods and (2) explore whether neighborhood SES and resources may be (a) independently and (b) jointly associated with young children's gains in language/literacy and executive function skills via differences in preschool classroom process quality. Our results suggested that neighborhoods were heterogeneous in both SES and resources, thereby indicating a diverse range of resource availability among lower SES neighborhoods. Moreover, we found that both neighborhood SES and resources were individually associated with benefits to children's development through levels of classroom process quality and that these associations were magnified in communities that were particularly high in both SES and resources. These findings point to potential policy levers at both neighborhood and classroom levels to support children's development.

Preschool teachers’ self-efficacy, classroom process quality, and children’s social skills: A multilevel mediation analysis

This study examined the interconnections among preschool teachers’ self-efficacy, classroom process quality and children’s social skill development based on a randomly selected sample of 5628 preschool children in a Chinese preschool context. Given the nested data structure, multilevel mediation modeling was utilized to investigate whether teachers’ self-efficacy, specifically teachers’ self-efficacy for instructional strategies (EIS), classroom management (ECM) and student engagement (ESE), exerted indirect effects on children’s social skills through the mediation of classroom process quality measured by Pianta, Hamre and LaParo’s (2008) Classroom Assessment Scoring System (CLASS) in three domains—emotional support (ES), classroom organization (CO) and instructional support (IS). Findings showed that CO is the only robust mediating mechanism between teachers’ self-efficacy and children’s social skills, indicating the importance of teachers’ CO in developing Chinese children’s social skills. Specifically, teachers’ CO acts as a positive mediator between teachers’ ECM and children’s social skills, but a negative mediator between teachers’ ESE and children’s social skills. This interesting negative mediation of teachers’ CO between teachers’ ESE and children’s social skills offers insights into Chinese preschool classroom dynamics and child development. Findings and their implications are discussed in light of Chinese sociocultural features.

Classroom composition, classroom quality and German skills of very young dual language learners and German-only learners

This study examined associations between the classroom percentage of dual language learners (DLLs), observed classroom quality, and children's German majority language skills. The cross-sectional sample of 2.5 years olds (n=93 immigrant DLLs and n=363 monolingual German-only learners) was clustered within n=197 classrooms. Classrooms with higher percentages of DLLs demonstrated slightly lower levels of overall classroom process quality. DLLs scored about 1 SD below monolingual children on German language skills when adjusting for family and classroom covariates. Moderation analyses revealed that this difference did not depend on the percentage of DLLs in a classroom. In fact, the classroom percentage of DLLs was related to children's German skills only when omitting the child level language status (DLL vs. monolingual) from the analyses. However, classroom quality moderated the difference between DLLs’ and monolingual children's German skills. This difference was estimated as about only 0.5 SD for DLLs and monolingual children experiencing higher classroom quality, but as about 1.5 SD for those experiencing lower quality. We conclude that high quality classrooms may promote the majority language skills of DLLs.

Classroom Quality, Classroom Composition, and Age at Entry: Experiences in Early Childhood Education and Care and Single and Dual Language Learners’ German Vocabulary

We examined independent and interactive links among three central characteristics of children’s experiences in early childhood education and care and the German receptive vocabulary of single language learners and dual language learners (DLLs). We allowed for possible differential effects depending on children’s language background. Our sample included 2,231 children ( n = 1,555 single language learners, n = 371 DLLs from families in which German was frequently spoken, n = 305 DLLs from families in which German was less frequently spoken). Children attended 177 classrooms in 95 early childhood education and care centers and were 30 to 80 months old. We found that classroom process quality predicted German vocabulary only for DLLs with low exposure to German in the family. An earlier age at entry was linked to a larger German vocabulary for all children, but the link was stronger for DLLs from families with low exposure to German. Classroom composition did not predict German vocabulary.

Boosting school readiness: Should preschool teachers target skills or the whole child?

We use experimental data to estimate impacts on school readiness of different kinds of preschool curricula – a largely neglected preschool input and measure of preschool quality. We find that the widely-used “whole-child” curricula found in most Head Start and pre-K classrooms produced higher classroom process quality than did locally-developed curricula, but failed to improve children's school readiness. A curriculum focused on building mathematics skills increased both classroom math activities and children's math achievement relative to the whole-child curricula. Similarly, curricula focused on literacy skills increased literacy achievement relative to whole-child curricula, despite failing to boost measured classroom process quality.

Teachers’ Social–Emotional Capacity: Factors Associated With Teachers’ Responsiveness and Professional Commitment

ABSTRACTResearch Findings: Early care and education has pronounced implications for young children’s social-emotional learning. Although program structural and classroom process quality indicators have been widely explored, teachers’ personal social–emotional capacity has only recently been recognized as an indicator of quality. This study reviewed and identified indicators of teachers’ social-emotional capacity and established a two factor structure of psychological load and coping abilities. We also explored correlational associations between teachers’ social-emotional capacity and their professional commitment and responsiveness to children’s negative emotions. The sample consisted of 1,129 teachers in center-based child-care programs and public preschools in the US. We found that teachers’ psychological load (depression, stress and emotional exhaustion) was associated with teachers’ negative reactions to children and teachers’ professional commitment after controlling for a wide range of teacher/classroom characteristics. Conversely, teachers’ coping abilities (reappraisal emotion regulation and problem-focused coping strategies) were related to their positive reactions to children’s negative emotions. Practice or Policy: The findings suggest further studies to identify training and professional development program components that might address early childhood teachers’ psychological difficulties and coping strategies. Child-care programs may also need efforts that support teachers’ social–emotional capacity as a way to improve teachers’ responsiveness and professional commitment.

Embedded Formative Assessment and Classroom Process Quality

In this study we examine the interplay between curriculum-embedded formative assessment—a well-known teaching practice—and general features of classroom process quality (i.e., cognitive activation, supportive climate, classroom management) and their combined effect on elementary school students’ understanding of the scientific concepts of floating and sinking. We used data from a cluster-randomized controlled trial and compared curriculum-embedded formative assessment (17 classes) with a control group (11 classes). Curriculum-embedded formative assessment and classroom process quality promoted students’ learning. Moreover, classroom process quality and embedded formative assessment interacted in promoting student learning. To ensure effective instruction and consequently satisfactory learning outcomes, teachers need to combine specific teaching practices with high classroom process quality.

Inequality in Preschool Quality? Community-Level Disparities in Access to High-Quality Learning Environments

ABSTRACTIn recent years, unequal access to high-quality preschool has emerged as a growing public policy concern. Because of data limitations, it is notoriously difficult to measure disparities in access to early learning opportunities across communities and particularly challenging to quantify gaps in access to high-quality programs. Research Findings: Using unique data from Georgia’s universal prekindergarten program, this study provides empirical evidence of the relationship between community characteristics and the availability of high-quality preschool opportunities. We show that in Georgia, a national leader with respect to preschool access as well as quality, there are still meaningful differences in quality across communities. Low-income and high-minority communities offer state preschool classrooms that are rated significantly lower on a widely used and validated measure of classroom process quality. Practice or Policy: This process quality gap is troubling given the positive relationship between our process quality measure and children’s learning. Note that we do not see similar gaps in structural measures of quality, which are the aspects of quality more often regulated but are also weaker, inconsistent predictors of children’s learning. Implications for policy are discussed.

Comparing state policy approaches to early care and education quality: A multidimensional assessment of quality rating and improvement systems and child care licensing regulations

This article compares states’ written Quality Rating and Improvement Systems (QRIS) and child care licensing regulations on their inclusion of key dimensions of early care and education (ECE) quality highlighted in prior research and theory. Using a newly developed 66-indicator policy rating index, data pertaining to ECE settings that serve 3- to 5-year-olds were gathered from the written policies of all 50 states and the District of Columbia. This index was designed to provide a nuanced measure of state ECE policy by differentiating between monitoring structure and process quality in the learning environments for children and teachers. Indicators were summed into four standardized subindices, and cluster analysis was used to identify groups of states with similar policy profiles. Results indicate the existence of six state policy profiles defined primarily by variation in QRIS policies. Overall, classroom process quality is more strongly represented in QRIS than in child care licensing; only two states emphasize classroom process in both types of policy. State policy profiles vary significantly on spending on state-funded PreK, but profile membership is not significantly related to other state demographic and ECE characteristics or to extant ratings of policies governing state-funded PreK and child care licensing. By taking this multidimensional approach to rating and grouping two important state ECE policies simultaneously, nuanced variation in policy is revealed that is not captured by measures of the strength of a single policy alone. As such, this study represents a first step toward understanding specific monitoring approaches reflected in state policy as potential mechanisms for improving the quality of ECE classrooms and programs.

Universal and targeted pre-kindergarten programmes: a comparison of classroom characteristics and child outcomes

Concerns about school readiness especially among children from low-income families have resulted in massive funding of state pre-kindergarten (pre-K) programmes. Pre-K programmes differ in whether they are universal (i.e. available to all children) or targeted (i.e. offered only to children with specific risk factors). Due to the lack of empirical evidence on differences in programme types, we conducted comparisons using data from an 11-state pre-K evaluation study. Universal and targeted programmes were compared on classroom characteristics and gains in achievement for low-income children. Findings indicated that while two aspects of classroom structural quality (hours per day and teacher education) were higher for universal programmes, classroom process quality was higher for targeted programmes. Gains over time in children's achievement outcomes were not reliably different across universal and targeted programmes.

Classroom Emotional Support predicts differences in preschool children's cortisol and alpha-amylase levels

Accumulating evidence suggests children enrolled in full-time child care often display afternoon elevations of the hormone cortisol, which is an indicator of stress. Recent advances in immunoassays allow for measurement of activity in the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis and the autonomic sympathetic nervous system from saliva, and measurement of both systems provides a more complete understanding of activity in the stress response system. This study is the first to examine both cortisol and alpha-amylase in children attending child care and focuses on the influences of specific indicators of classroom process quality. A diverse sample of 63 preschool children nested in 14 classrooms of varying quality participated in this study; child salivary cortisol and alpha-amylase were collected at six times over 2 days. Results indicate that children in classrooms with higher Emotional Support displayed a greater decline in cortisol from morning to afternoon. Further, children in classrooms with higher Emotional Support exhibited lower total alpha-amylase output while attending child care. Implications for professional development for early childhood teachers and measurement of classroom quality are discussed.

A multilevel model of child- and classroom-level psychosocial factors that support language and literacy resilience of children in Head Start

Abstract Early exposure to the multiple risk factors associated with poverty is related to an elevated risk for academic difficulty. Therefore, it is important to promote academic resilience as early as possible and to identify factors that support resilience. Given the positive relation between early language skills and later academic outcomes, examining resilience in the domain of language and literacy is critical. Both exposure to a high-quality classroom environment and early child psychosocial strengths may serve as protective or promotive factors for low-income children, reducing the risk of poor language and literacy outcomes. Using a sample of 275 preschoolers from 29 Head Start classrooms, the current study examined the relations among teacher-reported child-level psychosocial strengths, observed classroom process quality, and growth in language and literacy. Furthermore, whether child and classroom factors had an additive or an interactive effect on outcomes was also investigated. Results indicated that child-level psychosocial strengths predicted initial levels of language and literacy, and classroom organization predicted growth. Results are discussed in terms of understanding how malleable child- and classroom-level factors are associated with language and literacy outcomes and emphasize the importance of intervening early on in young children's learning trajectories.

The role of context in preschool learning: A multilevel examination of the contribution of context-specific problem behaviors and classroom process quality to low-income children's approaches to learning

Research suggests that promoting adaptive approaches to learning early in childhood may help close the gap between advantaged and disadvantaged children. Recent research has identified specific child-level and classroom-level variables that are significantly associated with preschoolers' approaches to learning. However, further research is needed to understand the interactive effects of these variables and determine whether classroom-level variables buffer the detrimental effects of child-level risk variables. Using a largely urban and minority sample ( N = 275) of preschool children, the present study examined the additive and interactive effects of children's context-specific problem behaviors and classroom process quality dimensions on children's approaches to learning. Teachers rated children's problem behavior and approaches to learning and independent assessors conducted classroom observations to assess process quality. Problem behaviors in structured learning situations and in peer and teacher interactions were found to negatively predict variance in approaches to learning. Classroom process quality domains did not independently predict variance in approaches to learning. Nonetheless, classroom process quality played an important role in these associations; high emotional support buffered the detrimental effects of problem behavior, whereas high instructional support exacerbated them. The findings of this study have important implications for classroom practices aimed at helping children who exhibit problem behaviors.