Classification Of Race Research Articles

Accuracy of patient race and ethnicity data in a central cancer registry.

Race and Hispanic ethnicity data can be challenging for central cancer registries to collect. We evaluated the accuracy of the race and Hispanic ethnicity variables collected by the Utah Cancer Registry compared to self-report. Participants were 3,162 cancer survivors who completed questionnaires administered in 2015-2022 by the Utah Cancer Registry. Each survey included separate questions collecting race and Hispanic ethnicity, respectively. Registry-collected race and Hispanic ethnicity were compared to self-reported values for the same individuals. We calculated sensitivity and specificity for each race category and Hispanic ethnicity separately. Survey participants included 323 (10.2%) survivors identifying as Hispanic, a lower proportion Hispanic than the 12.1% in the registry Hispanic variable (sensitivity 88.2%, specificity 96.5%). For race, 43 participants (1.4%) self-identified as American Indian or Alaska Native (AIAN), 32 (1.0%) as Asian, 23 (0.7%) as Black or African American, 16 (0.5%) Pacific Islander (PI), and 2994 (94.7%) as White. The registry race variable classified a smaller proportion of survivors as members of each of these race groups except White. Sensitivity for classification of race as AIAN was 9.3%, Asian 40.6%, Black 60.9%, PI 25.0%, and specificity for each of these groups was > 99%. Sensitivity and specificity for White were 98.8% and 47.4%. Cancer registry race and Hispanic ethnicity data often did not match the individual's self-identification. Of particular concern is the high proportion of AIAN individuals whose race is misclassified. Continued attention should be directed to the accurate capture of race and ethnicity data by hospitals.

Doctrinal Instability in Contextual Race-Conscious Review: The Continuing Legacy of the Korematsu Court’s Ultra-Deference Standard

The judicial tools of standards of review are designed to recognize historical inequities by applying heightened burdens of proof for discrimination and the abridgment of constitutional rights. In this Article, I argue that, in the past twenty-seven years since Adarand Constructors v. Peña, the Supreme Court’s contextual application of strict scrutiny for race and national origin discrimination has evolved to a point of instability, rendering its outcomes indeterminate. This instability is a result of our national conflict over when and how to use race to remedy race-based discrimination.The Court has selectively applied different standards of deferenced epending on the reasons that the government uses race. In applying these standards, the Court treats governmental use of race, whether benign or invidious, as two sides of the same problem, when in fact they are distinct legal questions. In other words, the Court treats the use of race as suspect regardless of its remedial application. This universalist approach has been defended as the best method to address and capture the complexity of different contexts. However, the universalist approach at its core, represents two diametrically opposed viewpoints on the role of race in American society.This inconsistency extends back before Adarand to the 1942 Korematsu v. U.S. decision. Since Korematsu, the Court has overwhelmingly given substantial deference—what I refer to as ultra-deference—to government rationales of national security and safety over the interest of civil liberties and civil rights protections for minorities and marginalized groups. Since the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks, this practice of ultra-deference has become firmly established in regulatory and jurisprudential practices. Most recently, the principles of Korematsu reappeared in the 2018 Trump v. Hawaii decision. Justice Robert’s opinion reflects that, even when presented with clear and convincing evidence of religious and national origin discrimination that should trigger a higher standard of strict scrutiny, ultra-deferential justices are willing to imply a presumption of a rational basis for government justifications.This ultra-deference occurs despite insufficient facts to satisfy the standard threshold for the discharge of the government’s burden of proof when its policy discriminates on the basis of race and national origin. Ultradeference is manifested in the mechanics of when, whether, and how to apply the strict scrutiny standard of review to suspect classifications of race and national origin. Ultra-deference to national security and safety rationales has been most often used in cases involving politically sensitive issues such as immigration. It has been presumed in cases where the Court deemed the national security interest of paramount importance to outweigh evidence of even invidious motivation, let alone disparate impact.While others may argue that a contextual application of strict scrutiny is an appropriate individualized response to the diversity of factual scenario striggering the suspect classification of race, such deference is in direct contrast to the universalist application of strict scrutiny to race-conscious policies regardless of benign, remedial, or invidious purposes. This inconsistency raises the importance of a thorough legal analysis of the role that implicit bias plays when there is clear evidence of disparate impact on the basis of race or national origin.

Racial and Ethnic Differences in Deaths by Suicide, Drug Overdose, and Opioid-Related Overdose in a National Sample of Military Members With Mild Traumatic Brain Injury, 1999-2019.

To examine racial and ethnic differences in suicide and drug and opioid-related overdose deaths among a population-based cohort of military service members who were diagnosed with a mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) during military service. Retrospective cohort. Military personnel receiving care within the Military Health System between 1999 and 2019. In total, 356 514 military members aged 18 to 64 years, who received an mTBI diagnosis as their index TBI between 1999 and 2019, while on active duty or activated. Death by suicide, death by drug overdose, and death by opioid overdose were identified using International Classification of Diseases, Tenth Revision (ICD-10) codes within the National Death Index. Race and ethnicity were captured from the Military Health System Data Repository. Overall crude rates were 38.67 per 100 000 person-years for suicide; 31.01 per 100 000 person-years for drug overdose death; and 20.82 per 100 000 person-years for opioid overdose death. Crude and age-specific rates for military members who self-identified as Other were higher than all other racial/ethnic groups for all 3 mortality outcomes. Adjusting for age, suicide rates for those classified as Other were up to 5 times that of other racial/ethnic groups for suicide, and up to 11 and 3.5 times that of other race/ethnicity groups for drug and opioid overdose death, respectively. Findings extend previous knowledge regarding risk for suicide and deaths by drug overdose among those with mTBI and highlight new important areas for understanding the impact of race and ethnicity on mortality. Methodological limitations regarding classification of race and ethnicity must be addressed to ensure that future research provides a better understanding of racial and ethnic disparities in suicide and drug overdose mortality among military members with TBI.

Disaggregating Racial and Ethnic Data: A Step Toward Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion

Disaggregating Racial and Ethnic Data: A Step Toward Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion

Deep learning for religious and continent-based toxic content detection and classification

With time, numerous online communication platforms have emerged that allow people to express themselves, increasing the dissemination of toxic languages, such as racism, sexual harassment, and other negative behaviors that are not accepted in polite society. As a result, toxic language identification in online communication has emerged as a critical application of natural language processing. Numerous academic and industrial researchers have recently researched toxic language identification using machine learning algorithms. However, Nontoxic comments, including particular identification descriptors, such as Muslim, Jewish, White, and Black, were assigned unrealistically high toxicity ratings in several machine learning models. This research analyzes and compares modern deep learning algorithms for multilabel toxic comments classification. We explore two scenarios: the first is a multilabel classification of Religious toxic comments, and the second is a multilabel classification of race or toxic ethnicity comments with various word embeddings (GloVe, Word2vec, and FastText) without word embeddings using an ordinary embedding layer. Experiments show that the CNN model produced the best results for classifying multilabel toxic comments in both scenarios. We compared the outcomes of these modern deep learning model performances in terms of multilabel evaluation metrics.

Asian Race and Primary Open-Angle Glaucoma: Where Do We Stand?

Primary open-angle glaucoma (POAG) is an optic neuropathy characterized by irreversible retinal ganglion cell damage and visual field loss. The global POAG prevalence is estimated to be 3.05%, and near term is expected to significantly rise, especially within aging Asian populations. Primary angle-closure glaucoma disproportionately affects Asians, with up to four times greater prevalence of normal-tension glaucoma reported compared with high-tension glaucoma. Estimates for overall POAG prevalence in Asian populations vary, with Chinese and Indian populations representing the majority of future cases. Structural characteristics associated with glaucoma progression including the optic nerve head, retina, and cornea are distinct in Asians, serving as intermediates between African and European descent populations. Patterns in IOP suggest some similarities between races, with a significant inverse relationship between age and IOP only in Asian populations. Genetic differences have been suggested to play a role in these differences, however, a clear genetic pattern is yet to be established. POAG pathogenesis differs between Asians and other ethnicities, and it may differ within the broad classification of the Asian race. Greater awareness and further research are needed to improve treatment plans and outcomes for the increasingly high prevalence of normal tension glaucoma within aging Asian populations.

Inaccurate Ethnicity and Race Classification of Hispanics Following Trauma Admission

Race and ethnicity are associated with disparate trauma outcomes. This study seeks to characterize accuracy of trauma registry classification of patient race and ethnicity and to identify factors associated with misclassification. A prospective observational study of patients admitted to an urban Level 1 trauma center was conducted over a 6-mo period. Race and ethnicity data recorded in the trauma registry were compared to patients' self-identifying data obtained through in-person interviews. Logistic regression determined rates of discordant race and ethnicity between trauma registry and patient self-identification processes, and identified factors independently associated with misclassification. A total of 444 patients were recruited. 98 (22%) self-identified as Hispanic/Latino. 45 patients self-identifying as Hispanic (45.9%) had inaccurately recorded ethnicity in the trauma registry. There was an increased odds of ethnicity misclassification in younger patients (OR 0.97, P < 0.01) and Spanish-only speakers (OR 11.80, P < 0.001). A decreased odds was found in males (OR 0.43, P < 0.05). No factors increased odds of racial misclassification, while dual English/Spanish speakers (OR 0.05, P < 0.01) wereas found to have decreased odds. Neither ethnicity nor race misclassification was associated with clinical variables. New racial self-identification was observed with 75% of patients who self-identified ethnically as Hispanic also self-identifying racially as Hispanic. Hispanic trauma patients have racial and ethnic misclassifications regardless of clinical status. Racial and ethnic identification is not sufficiently captured by current standardized questionnaires. Accuracy of hospital level racial data is important for local and national policies to address trauma disparities.

Achieving equity and inclusion in pediatric dermatology research: Priorities and considerations.

As we increase our focus and energy on equity, diversity, and inclusion (EDI)-relevant research, we must consider the "what, why, and how" of our work. The goals of this paper are to highlight unique issues pediatric dermatologists face in providing equitable care, pose considerations when reporting data on race and ethnicity, and advocate for standardized classification of race and ethnicity in research.

Undercutting efforts of precision medicine: roadblocks to minority representation in breast cancer clinical trials.

Precision (or personalized) medicine holds great promise in the treatment of breast cancer. The success of personalized medicine is contingent upon inclusivity and representation for minority groups in clinical trials. In this article, we focus on the roadblocks for the African American demographic, including the barriers to access and enrollment in breast oncology trials, the prevailing classification of race and ethnicity, and the need to refine monolithic categorization by employing genetic ancestry mapping tools for a more accurate determination of race or ethnicity.

Race, Ethnicity and Geographical Variables in the Study of Polycystic Ovarian Syndrome

Introduction Polycystic Ovarian Syndrome (PCOS), the most common endocrine disorder in women, is diagnosed based on a pattern of signs/symptoms including obesity, infertility, androgen excess, hirsutism, oligomenorrhea/amenorrhea, metabolic syndrome, and polycystic ovaries on ultrasound. Yet, there is little information on the variation in its presentation or response to treatment based on race or ethnicity. Many metabolic and cardiovascular disease (CVD) factors vary depending on race and/or ethnicity; stratifying PCOS patients in this way allows for a more detailed, individualized treatment. Our aim was to evaluate published primary source studies and describe the PCOS participants based on their race, ethnicity or geographical region. We hypothesized that there is an underrepresentation of minority populations in PCOS studies related to race and/or ethnicity. Methods A PubMed search was done in May 2020 for keywords ‘PCOS’ or ‘Polycystic Ovarian Syndrome’ or ‘Polycystic Ovarian Disease’ combined with keywords ‘Race’ or ‘Ethnicity.’ The resultant studies were limited to randomized control trials (RCT) or clinical trials. Studies were reviewed for classification of race: US Census criteria (white, Black, Native American/Alaskan Native, Asian/ Pacific Islander) or other, and details of Hispanic or non-Hispanic ethnicity. For non-US studies, geographic region was used as a variable for race or ethnicity. Results Our search strategy with chosen keywords yielded 19,756 studies. Limiting to keywords Race or Ethnicity resulted in 804 studies from which 28 were RCT or clinical trials. Of these, 23 studies from years 1994 to 2019 were available for review. Total subjects reported were 8,658, of those 7,451 were patients with PCOS. Race information was available in 10 studies; 3,853 subjects classified as per US census. Hispanic ethnicity information was available in 7 studies; total of 3,484 subjects. Remaining studies were based on geographical region of origin. Most studies did not differentiate Black or white Hispanic groups. There were 10 studies from Southeast Asia, China, and the Middle East that did not report race or ethnicity information. Among those that reported racial data, black people were 15% of participants (579/3,853) in US based studies. Asians were a highly studied group (22%) because of the quantity of publications from that geographical region. Of the symptoms/signs associated with PCOS, the most frequently reported were menstrual disturbances (18/23) and androgen excess (21/23). Less frequently reported were polycystic ovaries on ultrasound (14/23). Only studies based outside the US used infertility or hirsutism as PCOS diagnostic criteria. Conclusions Published reports on PCOS show an under-representation of black women, both as a race and as an ethnic sub-group among Hispanics. Racial/ethnic data has been significant in the management of PCOS comorbidities such as CVD, yet there is a paucity in this information on PCOS. Our future plan is to perform a systematic review of the interaction of race and ethnicity on the presentation and management of PCOS.

Sex and race differences of cerebrospinal fluid metabolites in healthy individuals.

Analyses of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) metabolites in large, healthysamples have been limited and potential demographic moderators of brain metabolism are largely unknown. Our objective in this study was to examine sex and race differences in 33 CSF metabolites within a sample of 129 healthy individuals (37 African American women, 29 white women, 38 African American men, and 25 white men). CSF metabolites were measured with a targeted electrochemistry-based metabolomics platform. Sex and race differences were quantified with both univariate and multivariate analyses. Type I error was controlled for by using a Bonferroni adjustment (0.05/33 = .0015). Multivariate Canonical Variate Analysis (CVA) of the 33 metabolites showed correct classification of sex at an average rate of 80.6% and correct classification of race at an average rate of 88.4%. Univariate analyses revealed that men had significantly higher concentrations of cysteine (p < 0.0001), uric acid (p < 0.0001), and N-acetylserotonin (p = 0.049), while women had significantly higher concentrations of 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid (5-HIAA) (p = 0.001). African American participants had significantly higher concentrations of 3-hydroxykynurenine (p = 0.018), while white participants had significantly higher concentrations of kynurenine (p < 0.0001), indoleacetic acid (p < 0.0001), xanthine (p = 0.001), alpha-tocopherol (p = 0.007), cysteine (p = 0.029), melatonin (p = 0.036), and7-methylxanthine (p = 0.037). After the Bonferroni adjustment, the effects for cysteine, uric acid, and 5-HIAA were still significant from the analysis of sex differences and kynurenine and indoleacetic acid were still significant from the analysis of race differences. Several of the metabolites assayed in this study have been associated with mental health disorders and neurological diseases. Our data provide some novel information regarding normal variations by sex and race in CSF metabolite levels within the tryptophan, tyrosine and purine pathways, which may help to enhance our understanding of mechanisms underlying sex and race differences and potentially prove useful in the future treatment of disease.

Preparticipation Cardiac Evaluation Findings in a Cohort of Collegiate Female Athletes

Knowledge of cardiovascular adaptations in athletes has predominantly focused on males, with limited data available on females who compromise a substantial percentage of all collegiate athletes. A multicenter retrospective cohort review of preparticipation cardiovascular screening data of 329 National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I female athletes was performed. This included physical exams, electrocardiograms, and echocardiograms. Female athletes in class IB sports had elevated systolic blood pressure (p = 0.01). For electrocardiograms, 7 (2%) had abnormal findings: 100% were white; 6 of 7 (86%) participated in IIC sports. Black athletes had longer PR intervals (p ≤ 0.001), whereas white athletes had longer QTc and QRS durations (p = 0.02 and 0.01, respectively). Athletes in IC and IIC sports had longer QTc intervals (p = 0.01). For echocardiographic parameters, no differences were noted based on race. However, significant differences were noted based on classification of sport: athletes in class IC sports had higher left-atrial volume indexes and E/A ratios. Athletes in class IB and IIC had increased left-ventricular wall thicknesses and aortic root dimensions. In conclusion, among one of the largest cohorts of collegiate female athlete preparticipation cardiac screening data to date, significant differences in various parameters based on classification of sport and race were observed. These categorizations should be considered when interpreting cardiovascular screening in female collegiate athletes to improve screening and guide future research.

Quality Assurance in Gifted Education

The aim of this review is to consider recent research related to the quality of gifted education. The first six webpages of Google Scholar were searched to collect over 80 papers. PRISMA flow diagram was used for screening to finally select 58 papers for this review. Gifted and Talented Education (GATE) is a package of instructional practices, processes and theories designed to help high performing students, and to enhance their capabilities academically. This study reviews the quality standards of gifted education in certain countries. One research comparing 21 European countries using the international framework for gifted education is included in the study. The conceptual and theoretical aspects of the training are mostly related to cognitive and non-cognitive aspects of learning. A fiercely debated topic is whether gifted education should be separate or included in a common programme. Both sides use high-quality principles and educational frameworks (ICAP, CDL) to strengthen their viewpoints. Another aspect of the study is whether minorities are proportionately represented in such programmes. Methods of service delivery play an important role in ensuring the quality of gifted education and the principals and teachers of the respective institutions are the chief players. Suggestions are given to ensure quality of gifted education, to countries which need improvements in the existing gifted education programmes and to countries which do not have such programmes given. The implication of this study is that it is possible to differentiate exceptionally talented students and ensure that they are not slowed down by conventional teaching programmes or curricula. Add-on programmes can be designed for these students to help them learn faster and prepare them for more advanced levels. Also, including gifted children without any classification of race or creed is possible and signals inclusivity, which is good for the discipline in general.

Intersections between Race and Class: A Postcolonial Analysis and Implications for Organizational Leaders

Abstract This article seeks to understand the construction of racial identity in the Brazilian social context and its intersections with social class, aiming to analyze the occurrence of race resignification in this intersectional process, a process called the classification of race herein. Considering that business students will be leaders involved with the elaboration of organizational policies, this article seeks to contribute to the development of racial diversity policies in the field. Interviews were thus held with undergraduate students of management in a Brazilian university. The interviews occurred in focus groups, and data analysis was performed by means of discourse analysis from a postcolonial identity perspective, which allowed us to conclude that the boundaries between race and class are quite tenuous, to the point that racial aspects are reduced to merely involving social class. At the same time, social class acts as a form of whitening. The reduction of race to social class is a strategy of denying race as a social marker that produces inequalities and denying the existence of structural racism in the Brazilian society, thus bearing the myth that Brazil is a racial democracy.

The Construction of Race in Brazil: Uncovering Structural Inequalities

This article seeks to understand the construction of racial identity in the Brazilian social context and its intersections with social class, aiming to analyse the occurrence of race resignification in this intersectional process, a process called the classification of race herein. Focus groups were held with undergraduate management students from a Brazilian university. The data were analysed from a postcolonial perspective, which allowed us to conclude that the boundaries between race and class are quite tenuous, to the point that racial aspects are reduced to merely being questions of social class. At the same time, social class acts as a form of whitening. The reduction of race to social class is a strategy of denying race as a social marker that produces inequalities and denying the existence of structural racism in Brazilian society. However, despite this strategy of denial, it was found that work is highly structurally racialized in Brazil.

3.11-P3The double-edged sword of bloodlines - classification of colour, race and ethnicity in sickle cell research and screening

3.11-P3The double-edged sword of bloodlines - classification of colour, race and ethnicity in sickle cell research and screening

Cephalic Index in Sexual Dimorphism and Racial Diversity: A Mini Review

Craniometry and cephalometry are useful in classification of race and sex of individuals of unknown identity This is a synoptic capture of cephalic index and cephalic dimensions in different populations Cephalic index of females was higher than that of males in most populations with mesocephalic head shape in both sexes Cephalic length and breadth of Indians were higher than those of Nigerians Cephalic length and breadth were higher in male than female Cephalic index and dimensions are important parameters in identification of both sexes and races

Face Classification Using Color Information

Color models are widely used in image recognition because they represent significant information. On the other hand, texture analysis techniques have been extensively used for facial feature extraction. In this paper; we extract discriminative features related to facial attributes by utilizing different color models and texture analysis techniques. Specifically, we propose novel methods for texture analysis to improve classification performance of race and gender. The proposed methods for texture analysis are based on Local Binary Pattern and its derivatives. These texture analysis methods are evaluated for six color models (hue, saturation and intensity value (HSV); L*a*b*; RGB; YCbCr; YIQ; YUV) to investigate the effect of each color model. Further, we configure two combinations of color channels to represent color information suitable for gender and race classification of face images. We perform experiments on publicly available face databases. Experimental results show that the proposed approaches are effective for the classification of gender and race.

Race and its development

This article is composed of several parts including a brief history for differentiating the races, geographical distribution and physical characteristics of races, ways through which the characteristics of races were formed, the blurring of boundaries between races, queries on the biological concept of race, race in actual life, anti-racism and concluding remarks. French philosopher and physician F. Bernier proposed the concept of race to describe the diversity of humans for the first time in 1684. Linnaeus divided Homo sapiens into Europeans, Asians, Americans and Africans. Blumenbach divided human beings into yellow, red, white, brown and black races and recognized that there were transitional human populations between neighboring races. Different races previously occupied different territories and possessed different physical characteristics which were clearly observable in the period earlier than 300 years before present. For a long time, the Mongoloid or Yellow race was distributed in the eastern and central parts of Asia, Southeast Asia and the Americas; the Caucasian or European or White race was distributed in Europe, western and southern parts of Asia and north Africa; the Negroid or Black race was distributed throughout most of Africa; and the Australoid or Brown race was distributed in Australia and neighboring islands, and usually included in the Black race. Ancient humans migrated from Africa around 1.8 Ma and dispersed in large areas of Eurasia. They diverged in physical characteristics due to genetic drift, mutation and adaptation to new environments. The expansion of European into Americas, Africa and Australia in last hundreds of years has changed the geographical distribution of races, and more and more hybrids have been blurring the boundary between races in physical characteristics described in the earlier literatures. This led to the gradual disappearance of the reality of biological concept of race which was queried by F. Boas and successive challengers in anthropological studies. In 1996 a “Statement on Biological Aspects of Race” was announced by the American Association of Physical Anthropologists that the classification of race has no genetic basis and no legitimate position in the biological science. Race is a social and political concept. The use of race concept has been declining. In the beginning of this century only 50% of physical anthropologists and 31% of cultural anthropologists in the US accepted the validity of biological races in Homo sapiens . There are many reasons for the decline in the acceptance of race as a means of understanding human variation. However, it is necessary to point out that the anthropologists who refuse to accept the biological concept do not deny the biological differences among various populations. They consider that the humankind varies clinally. In 1997, six racial categories were defined by the US Office of Management and Budget: White or Caucasian, Black or African American, Asian, Amerindian or Alaska Native, Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander and some other race. Most of them are classified based on external appearance and the geographical distribution of their ancestors, while the category Asian includes populations the ancestors of which migrated from east and central Asia as well as south Asia and had been attributed to Mongoloid and Caucasian respectively in early 20th century. Epidemiological studies show disparities among different races/ethnicities in many diseases including diabetes, hypertension, carcinomas of lung, bronchus, colon, rectum, mammary gland and cervix in female and prostate in male, melanoma, asthma, and premature delivery etc. But it has been also pointed out that the frequency of some diseases among people of specific origin can be an artifact of environmental and/or social factors, and not purely because of their genetic heritage—especially diseases such as diabetes, heart disease, hypertension, and cancer. Knowledge concerning physical characteristics of different races/ethnicities is also useful in forensic practice and studies. In the US, there is a long history of racism dating back to Slave Trade. Although the racial segregation was abolished in 1964, the influence of racial discrimination still exists, so the anti-racism movement continues. In sum, the connotation of race concept has been changing through time, and it remains a social problem in some countries.

Children’s classification and lexicalization of attractiveness, gender, and race: Differential displays of these concepts and relatedness to bias and flexibility

Minimal research has examined children’s functional use of attractiveness to classify and label others, an important step in the development of children’s biases. This study compared 3- to 11-year-olds’ classification, sorting, and labeling of others and themselves based on attractiveness, gender, and race and also investigated whether these abilities and other characteristics predicted children’s bias and flexibility. Relative to gender and race, children rarely used attractiveness to spontaneously classify people and were less accurate at sorting and labeling others and themselves by attractiveness, suggesting that they have a less explicit concept of attractiveness. Predictors of bias differed depending on domain and assessment method (forced choice or non-forced choice), showing that children’s bias is affected by both individual differences and task characteristics. Predictors of flexibility differed based on whether children were assigning positive or negative traits to target children, demonstrating that the valence of attributes is an important consideration when conceptualizing children’s flexibility.