Classical Thinkers Research Articles

Revisiting the Concept of Peace: A Sociological Perspective

In the ever-changing global context, understanding peace has become a primary focus across various disciplines, including sociology. The sociological paradigm offers a rich and relevant perspective in understanding the dynamics of conflict, reconciliation, and post-conflict development. However, there is still a need for deeper exploration of the concept of peace within the sociological context. This research aims to investigate the evolution of the concept of peace from a sociological perspective, ranging from classical to contemporary thoughts, and to explore the implications of the sociological paradigm in peace practices and policies. This study utilizes a literature review approach to gather and analyze prominent works in sociology relevant to the concept of peace. The analysis is conducted on the views of leading sociological thinkers and relevant research findings. The findings from this literature review indicate that the sociological paradigm provides profound insights into the evolution of the concept of peace, from classical thinkers such as Durkheim, Weber, and Marx, to contemporary approaches such as critical theory and feminism. The practical implications of the sociological paradigm in conflict resolution, reconciliation, and post-conflict development are also explored. This research underscores the importance of the sociological paradigm in understanding and resolving conflicts and post-conflict development. By considering the complexity of social, political, and cultural dynamics and applying a holistic and contextual approach in designing peace strategies, sociology can make a valuable contribution to promoting sustainable and inclusive peace.

Qur'anic Hermeneutics and its Applications by Fazlur Rahman

This article seeks to identify the ideas of Fazlur Rahman, a classical thinker who is also ultramodern and advances neo modernism. Muslims are required to have a critical understanding of the Western world. One of his contributions is the Double Movement hermeneutic technique. This technique has distinct properties that can be used to understand legal and social texts. To identify Fazlur Rahman's views, the literature research approach is performed. According to the findings, Rahman emphasized the need of knowing the socio-historical backdrop in the field of law. Rahman was crucial in the development of a more methodical interpretive building. Even though his method is not wholly novel, he made an important contribution by emphasizing socio-historical factors and the Double Movement approach. However, problems and flaws in his technique are still being contested among Muslim academics. This article discusses the benefits and drawbacks of this strategy, presenting a fair picture of Rahman's contribution to ultramodern Islamic thinking.

Simmel’s sociology of time: On temporal coordination and acceleration

Time plays an integral role in understanding how the social is possible. However, most discussions of sociological classical thinkers—such as Georg Simmel—remain starkly underexplored in terms of their theories’ temporal presuppositions. While most responses to Simmel’s work credit him for his major contributions to the sociology of space, in this paper I aim to systematically reconstruct his explicit and implicit temporal assumptions and explore how these inform some of his social-theoretical writings and his sharp temporal diagnosis of modernity. For this purpose, I re-evaluate some of his central works using a theory distinction between social-theory, which aims to answer what constitutes the social, versus theory-of-society, where the key focus is what form or forms human societies have taken so far, and especially what form modern society takes. By offering a new reading of Simmel’s philosophical and sociological writings, I formulate a comprehensive social theory of time, in which time is both located within individual consciousness and reciprocally mediated by a culturally fixed and supra-individual timeframe, thus highlighting the temporal tensions between individual flexibility and social standardization and coordination. Simmel’s diagnosis of modernity reveals a conceptualization of time in spatialized terms, a monetization of time, and an acceleration of life.

‘uMuntu nguMuntu ngaBantu’: Toward an Equitably Infused Global Epistemological Orientation and Global (Philosophy of) Education

Abstract The core question in this article is whether, or not, uBuntu and Humanism can simultaneously inform a pursuit of an equitably infused global epistemological orientation and, consequently, an equitably infused global (philosophy of)1 education. I argue that uBuntu and Humanism are not compatible at the very core of their ontological, axiological, and epistemological nature, and thus, might present an epistemological challenge to any attempt to develop an equitably infused global epistemological orientation and an equitably infused global (philosophy of) education. Moreover, I assume the broad etymological definition of philosophy as the ‘love of wisdom’ and that wisdom is a manifestation in uBuntu world, and consequently the love of such, and the resulting need to inquire into the compatibility, while recognizing potential incommensurability, between how wisdom is thought of by Western humanist-derived epistemologies and by uBuntu-derived epistemologies. At the center of the analysis is the nature of ‘human’ or ‘person’ since both Humanism and uBuntu are intrinsically bound to conceptualizations of personhood. Framed within the historical backdrop of the European Renaissance and the African Renaissance, the article comprises a critical historical outlook and analysis of primary and secondary sources of discourses on Humanism and uBuntu. Primary focus is on works of so-called2 classical thinkers such as Heidegger, Husserl, Cheikh Anta Diop, René Descartes, Frederick Nietzsche, Julius Nyerere, and John Mbiti. The key aim is to challenge scholars to work toward the equitable infusion of epistemologies inherent in these two terms, instead of continuing to see these terms as interchangeable, which essentially authenticates and perpetuates the imposition of humanism on non-humanist contexts. The African Renaissance might be the adequate space for such equitable placement of uBuntu as a source of global epistemologies alongside those emanating from Humanism.

The Ideas of Hegel and Engels in the Context of the Self-Organization Theory

The philosophy of nature, which encompasses the comprehensive study of the natural world, became intimately linked with the interdisciplinary approach of self-organization theory, or synergetics, as it was revealed in the latter third of the 20 th century. This novel understanding of reality and its connection to synergetics becomes evident when comparing the panlogism of G.W.F. Hegel and the dialectical materialism of F. Engels, both based on 19 th -century scientific achievements, with contemporary issues in natural science. This comparison is justified as the worldviews formulated by Hegel, Marx, and Engels significantly influenced the development of civilization in the 20 th century. Similarly, synergetics appears poised to become the cornerstone of the emerging scientific worldview. The philosophical legacies of these classical thinkers play a crucial role in shaping the theory of self-organization. Hegel examined the question of self-development within complex systems and analyzed culture through this perspective, consequently, he can be considered a precursor to synergetics. His viewpoint on the philosophy and methodology of science as a means of reflection within the domain of knowledge remains influential. The evolutionary approach, which Engels regarded as one of the major accomplishments of 19 th -century science, now serves as the foundation for numerous contemporary scientific disciplines, including synergetics itself. The philosophical approach to seeking elementary entities, from which the properties of the whole could be discerned, emerged as the driving force in the development of 20 th -century science. Concurrently, the challenges confronting humanity have significantly transformed the realm of scientific knowledge. Emphasis has shifted toward the laws governing the interactions of elementary entities, as well as the associated issues of structure, chaos, and self-organization. The roles of mathematical modeling, intra-scientific reflection, and large-scale projects have proven to be more critical than initially anticipated by the classical philosophers. The ongoing humanitarian and technological revolution necessitates new responses to the profound and significant questions originally posed by Hegel and Engels.

Maghza Nasr Hamid Abu Zayd's Interpretation Concept as A Counter of Polygamy Pragmatism

The main purpose of this research is to reveal the deep meaning of polygamous verses by using the theoretical approach of Nasr Hamid Abu Zayd's text study. As a critical Islamic thinker, Nasr produced many controversial understandings with classical thinkers, including in interpreting the polygamy verse. Nasr sees the meaning of the verse of polygamy in its historical context as a limitation of the human relationship between men and women in the tradition of pre-Islamic Arab society. This historical origin is only a starting point for understanding the verse, not as the main message of the Qur'an. Nasr photographed the meaning of the verse of polygamy in the context of the Qur'an as a whole. The placement of the text in its comprehensive context produces the original meaning and the meaning of significance (magza) and reveals the hidden dimension of meaning (al maskut 'anhu) namely the principle of monogamy. By revealing this hidden meaning, it will be able to counteract the pragmatic polygamists who are currently happening on the pretext of religion.

«WUJUH AND NAZAIR» AS AN IMPORTANT DISCIPLINE OF THE QURANIC SCIENCES

This article provides information about one of the primary areas of the classical Quranic sciences - «wujuh and nazair». The information and examples presented in the paper are important for modern studies of the Quran. Because, at the present this area is practically not found in the contemporary literature on the sciences of the Qur’an. The article provides information about the history of the region «wujuh and nazair», its development, scholars who worked in this field, the features and significance of this area, works related to this area, and research being conducted today. It also reveals the essence of research in the field of «wujuh and nazair», some examples from works related to this area, the importance of «wujuh and nazair», and samples that can be called «wujuh». In addition, a special place is given to the analysis of the terms «nazair» and «wujuh». For example, commentators draw attention pointing out the use of a single word in the Qur’an in the plural when mentioning a useful natural phenomenon that benefits people and animals, and the use of singular form when referring to destructive and deadly phenomenon, explaining harmful circumstances. It has been shown that if some words are used in the plural, then they have the meaning of blessing, while in singular, it means destructing and depressing the house and the crop. In «Tahsil Nazair al-Quran» by Hakim Tirmidhi, the sides related to the area of «wujuh and nazair» were also briefly highlighted. The article extensively uses the heritage of classical thinkers such as Muqatil ibn Sulaiman, Jalaluddin Suyuti, Badruddin Zarkashi, Khalil Ahmad Farahidi, Yahya Nawawi. It also refers to the books of modern researchers such as S. Avo, A. Atesh, A. Abdurrahman, N. Munajjid, E. Kuliyev

The Interpretation of Islamic Education: Perceptions of Modernist and Classical Thinkers on The Qur’anic Exegesis

This article discussed the perceptions of Muslim thinkers on the Quran and tafsir in terms of both the classic and modern eras. However, the article is subjected to the analytical comparison between the classical and modern eras of Qur’anic exegesis. Throughout the research about these thoughts, the root-age of tafsir with the approach of the interpreters and the Islamic thinkers will gain special attention. To establish adequate information in the study, a clear picture of the exegetical thoughts with the several perceptions of classical and modernist thinkers is drawn accordingly. However, in enabling this projected idea to reach the target area, the research adopted the following analytical method, reviewing the available literature; such as books, articles, journals, and the dissertation, which may have a direct or indirect connection to this research. Nevertheless, the noble Qur’an is quite recognized as a book representing the first source of evidence in Islam; many perceptions may be established in the course of striving to gain its exegetical expression. So, this article has drawn a straight line to reach the efforts of Muslim thinkers in both the late and current era to protect the sacred book (Qur’an) with their noble knowledge of Qur’anic exegesis.

Moral Obligation to Worship God Alone

This article examines how, in his al-Tafsīr al-kabīr, Fakhr al-Dīn al-Rāzī (d. 606/1210) addresses the problem of the obligation to thank the benefactor (wujūb shukr al-munʿim) within the context of the Quranic command to worship God alone. The obligation to thank one’s benefactor was a contentious problem among classical Islamic thinkers before Rāzī, and it was frequently discussed in fiqh and kalām works in the context of the ontology and epistemology of moral values and legal norms. Rāzī’s analysis in the Tafsīr, however, sheds light on another way in which the “thanking one’s benefactor”-problem was of relevance for classical Islamic thinkers: it is used to frame the rationale for monotheism in terms of the gratitude God deserves for being humans’ provider. This aspect of the “thanking one’s benefactor”-problem has not been highlighted in the secondary literature. This article discusses how Rāzī’s analysis of God’s sole deservedness of worship has theological, legal, and ethical/moral implications. The theological implications are found in the questions it raises about the notorious problem of causality. The legal implications become apparent in Rāzī’s interest in the ratio legis of the Quranic command and in establishing that the obligation arises with God’s sovereign decree. The ethical or moral implications, finally, are seen in his concern with how humans come to know of the goodness of monotheism and the repugnancy of polytheism. The article contextualises Rāzī’s position in the Tafsīr against the background of the fiqh and kalām debates about the “thanking one’s benefactor”-problem.

The German Idea of Democracy

The German Idea of Democracy Gangolf Hübinger (bio) Robert E. Norton, The Crucible of German Democracy. Ernst Troeltsch and the First World War (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck 2021), XV + 649pp. (hbk). ISBN 978-3-16-159828-9. €129.00. The theologian, philosopher, and politician Ernst Troeltsch (1865-1923) belonged, like Max Weber, to the classical thinkers of the modern age. Weber and Troeltsch were friends and rivals. For a time they lived in Heidelberg in the same house on Ziegelhäuser Landstraße. Their main works, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism and The Social Teaching of the Christian Churches, are regularly compared.1 Politically, both were committed to liberal reforms to the German Empire, to a Verständigungsfrieden with the Entente powers, and to the introduction of parliamentary democracy in the Weimar Republic. To this end, both scholars acted as prominent campaigners for the German Democratic Party (DDP).2 Far more research has been done on Max Weber's political profile than on Ernst Troeltsch's. It is therefore extremely welcome that Robert E. Norton has now penned a very detailed and thoroughly researched study on Ernst Troeltsch's understanding of democracy and his political activities during the First World War. Norton, a cultural and intellectual historian at the University of Notre Dame, has written a widely [End Page 125] acclaimed biography of Stefan George.3 In his latest study of World War I, he evaluates an impressive array of contemporary writings, speeches, and manifestos in order to situate and highlight Troeltsch in the fierce controversies among German scholars and intellectuals over wartime goals and reforms of the political system. In many respects, he was able to draw on the Kritische Ernst Troeltsch Gesamtausgabe.4 Norton has not written a biography of the entire life span of the liberal theologian and philosopher of history as such. His intellectual biography is contextual and is guided by two theses. Modern German democracy emerged in the internal battles of ideas during the First World War, before the American President Woodrow Wilson exerted external pressure with his wartime goal 'to make the world safe for democracy'. And democracy in Germany was certainly not a result of the defeat in the war. Rather, there had been a 'process of social transformation' early after the beginning of the war, pushed by scholars such as Hugo Preuß, Friedrich Meinecke, and Otto Hintze. Ernst Troeltsch occupied 'a preeminent place among them, in these wartimes debates'. Troeltsch, as an opinion leader of German 'self liberation' (11), requires an historical re-evaluation. Troeltsch's permanent struggle for 'the necessity of a democratic future for Germany' has been unjustly forgotten in German historical culture. With his monograph, Norton does not want to celebrate his protagonist as a 'hero', although he certainly was one in the sense of Dieter Thomä's book Why Democracies Need Heroes.5 Norton's Crucible of German Democracy comes at the right time. For some time now, there has been a fierce dispute in Germany about the opportunities and threats to democracy in the past and present. Is democracy, as the Western type of political rule, in a deep existential crisis today, and how, by comparison, did contemporaries in the World War and the Weimar Republic view and judge the crises of Germany's revolutionary reordering? Norton wants to set his own accent here and has chosen Ernst Troeltsch as a key figure for this purpose. In the obituaries in 1923, Troeltsch was compared to Albert Einstein, and Norton adopts the image of the 'Einstein of culture' for his introduction, bringing Troeltsch into new focus as the leading figure in German intellectual history. Norton is full of admiration for [End Page 126] Troeltsch's style of thinking: 'his almost alchemical talent for integrating vast and disparate amounts of information within a generous framework of dazzling subtlety and sophistication' (24f.). Troeltsch earned this reputation with his two major works, The Social Teaching of the Christian Churches and the unfinished work Historicism and its Problems, but also through his more than 1,300 items of literary criticisms and reviews in the entire field of cultural studies.6 Troeltsch was able to transfer his authority as...

Past Continuous or Present Perfect? Continuity and Change in Contemporary Indian Philosophy

Contemporary Indian philosophy is a distinct genre of philosophy that draws both on classical Indian philosophical sources and on Western materials, old and new. It is comparative philosophy without borders. In this paper, I attempt to show how contemporary Indian philosophy works through five instances from five of its protagonists: Krishnachandra Bhattacharyya (his new interpretation of the old rope-snake parable in his essay “Śaṅkara’s Doctrine of Maya”, 1925); Daya Krishna (I focus on the “moral monadism” that the theory of karma in his reading leads to, drawing on his book Discussion and Debate in Indian Philosophy, 2004); Ramchandra Gandhi (his commentary on the concept of Brahmacharya in correspondence with his grandfather, the Mahatma, in his essay “Brahmacharya”, 1981); Mukund Lath (on identity through—not despite—change, with classical Indian music, Rāga music, as his case-study, in his essay “Identity through Necessary Change”, 2003); and Rajendra Swaroop Bhatnagar (on suffering, in his paper “No Suffering if Human Beings Were Not Sensitive”, 2021). My aim is twofold. First, to introduce five contemporary Indian philosophers; and second, to raise the question of newness and philosophy. Is there anything new in philosophy, or is contemporary philosophy just a footnote—à la Whitehead—to the writings of great thinkers of the past? Is contemporary Indian philosophy, my protagonists included, just a series of footnotes to classical thinkers both in India and Europe? Footnotes to the Upaniṣads, Nāgārjuna, Dharmakīrti and Śaṅkara, as much as (let us not forget colonialism and Macaulay) to Plato, Aristotle, Kant and Hegel? Footnotes can be creative and work almost as a parallel text, interpretive, critical, even subversive. However, my contention is that contemporary Indian philosophy (I leave it to others to plea for contemporary Western philosophy) is not a footnote, it is a text with agency of its own, validity of its own, power of its own. It is wholly and thoroughly a text worth reading. In this paper, I make an attempt to substantiate this claim through the philosophical mosaic I offer, in each instance highlighting both the continuity with classical sources and my protagonists’ courageous transgressions and innovations.

Qiyama as Rebellion, Taqiyya as Hypercamouflage: The Political Theology of Reza Negarestani

An examination of the Iranian philosopher Reza Negarestani’s development of political theology. Considered within the context of his involvement with a strand of contemporary philosophical thinking known as speculative realism, it examines Negarestani’s use of Islamic referents in Cyclonopedia, a multi-layered frame story belonging to the genre of theory fiction, and in more technical-philosophical treatises. Focusing on his deployment of dissenting interpretations of the notions of taqiyya (concealment, dissimulation) and qiyama (resurrection), the resulting spatiotemporal implications are assessed by putting Negarestani in conversation with classical and contemporary Islamic and non-Muslim thinkers, theologians, and philosophers.

Principles of comparative foreign policy

The article analyzes the principles of the comparative foreign policy of the state. The foreign policy strategies of states depend on such characteristics as size, geographical location, history, culture, form of government, etc. The author examines whether all major states behave the same way when forming and conducting foreign policy. Do all small states behave in the same way in foreign policy? Do the foreign policies of maritime states differ from the foreign policy strategies of landlocked states? These and all related issues of foreign policy development and implementation constitute the essence of the comparative foreign policy. When thinking about foreign policy, it is useful to consider it as a direction of diplomatic actions, which can be analyzed as proactive or reactive. In the history of international relations and global politics, many techniques and methods have been developed that are based on systematic studies of current events. The best foreign policy concepts have been used in the practice of states for many decades. Modern political analysis uses concepts rooted in ancient political practice. From their history, the author of the article identifies nine concepts, on the basis of which he conducts a comparative analysis of the principles of foreign policy strategies of states. Using three levels of analysis, the author concentrates on a detailed examination of a specific crosssection from the life of the state. Like biologists who adjust the resolution of a microscope, an international analyst can switch the focus from level to level in order to understand the phenomenon of foreign policy events. The author also notes that the type of research conducted depends on its purpose. The goals can be organized according to the range of types of research: instrumental, descriptive, analytical, etc. The author also gives examples of classical thinkers about foreign policy. Key words: foreign policy, international relations, political analysis.

Monetary Policy Literature in the History of Islamic Economic Thinking

One of the Government's strategies is to promote the welfare aspect of the community's economic life. Economic development can be carried out with various strategies. One of them is empowering the wealth of natural resources that have been created by God. The government can open mines of gold, silver, coal, kerosene, gas, tin, etc. that are stored in the bowels of the earth as a form of natural empowerment. From another dimension, to maximize the ability of the economy, the government can make monetary and fiscal policies. In this paper, the author will explain how the government's monetary and fiscal policies in economic empowerment. Broadly speaking, the Islamic version of monetary policy is different from the non-Islamic version of monetary policy. This article focuses on the discussion of monetary policy in the history of Islamic economic thought, which will discuss how monetary policy was carried out in the early days of Islamic rule, starting from the time of the Prophet, his companions, to classical and contemporary economic thinkers. The explanations and descriptions that will be presented in this article can provide benefits both theoretically and practically regarding monetary policy in classical civilization, and its suitability for the present. The method used in writing this article uses a literature review approach, is used to collect relevant information related to monetary policy in the history of Islamic economic thought, secondary data in this article is collected from various research reports in order to obtain an explanation more comprehensive. The impact of monetary policy on the economy at the beginning of the Islamic Government was seen by the increasing demand for Aggregate Demand from the community after moving to Medina by bringing together muhajirin and ansar. With this brotherhood, each ansar is responsible for the muhajirin so that the distribution of income from ansar to muhajirin increases and has an impact on increasing the total demand of the community and resulting in an increase in resources, labor, land and capital. Keywords: Monetary, Policy, Islam, Economy, Development.

Adam Smith by Craig Smith

<i>Adam Smith</i> by Craig Smith

¿Tecnologías para una inmovilidad real y atomizada? Reflexiones éticas en torno a la potencialidad de los usos políticos de las tic en lo social

Los usos y efectos de las tecnologías de la información y comunicación (tic) no se encuentran predeterminados. Su utilización en procesos de movilización y protesta social renuevan las discusiones sobre las potencialidades que pueden adquirir socialmente, en cuanto medios virtuosos para reclamar justicia social y una mayor democratización. Desde una mirada interdisciplinaria que recupera propuestas teóricas de pensadores clásicos de la filosofía y aportes socioantropológicos, reflexionaremos mediante interrogantes éticos sobre la potencialidad de los usos políticos y sociales de las tic para dar cuenta de una virtuosidad real y disruptiva, con respecto al predominio de una vida atomizada.

A Theoretical Socio-Economic Investigation into the Nature of Power in Money

This article aims to contribute to the ongoing discussions on the nature of money by introducing systematic analysis to relate power to money. It proposes an Ideal Type to explain the critical role of power relations for the genesis and operation of money and monetary order. It is based on the insights from classical thinkers (Weber, Durkheim, Mauss, Simmel and Laum) on the one hand and modern discourses on power by Lukes and the French Institutional School on the other. It concludes with a definition of money from a power perspective.

Формування історико-філософського канону і проблема сенсу життя. Hauskeller, M. (2019). The Meaning of Life and Death: Ten Classic Thinkers on the Ultimate Question. London, &amp; New York, NY: Bloomsbury.

Review of Hauskeller, M. (2019). The Meaning of Life and Death: Ten Classic Thinkers on the Ultimate Question. London, &amp; New York, NY: Bloomsbury.

Feminine Power in Proclus's Commentary on Plato's Timaeus

AbstractNotorious for advancing a strict dichotomy between the masculine “demiurgic father” and the feminine “nurse/receptacle of becoming” as the “natural” origin of the cosmos, Plato's Timaeus has become a site for feminist interrogation. Most critics easily deem the text a masculine fantasy that projects feminine impotence and obligatory heterosexuality, reinforcing patriarchal power structures that are blindly reproduced in their historical reception. Consequently, this article analyzes the Neoplatonic replication of this framework, but with special attention given to Proclus's challenges to this gendered and sexual context. In this late, sometimes forgotten figure, we find, rather surprisingly, a Platonist who neither sequesters the feminine to the domain of the passive receptacle nor charges her simply with being a bastard image of the masculine. Rather, for Proclus, the feminine becomes the site of lived, erotic power that produces and sustains the value of authentic otherness. Furthermore, Proclus offers a challenge to the naturalness of the sex binary, suggesting a radical queerness as the basis of all identity. Overall, we shall see how classical patriarchal thinkers may, despite themselves, offer subversive models that might present readers with possibilities for troubling the sexual prejudices of ancient metaphysical schemas.

Post-Classical Islamic Philosophy – a Contradiction in Terms?

This paper engages critically with Dimitri Gutas’ recent characterization of post-classical Islamic philosophy and theology as a form of paraphilosophy or intellectual activity that merely simulates philosophy. I argue that this view arises from a misguided understanding of the concept of philosophy that should provide the standard for its historiography. In order to avoid a number of problematic consequences, such as gaps in historical continuity or a disconnection from what we understand by philosophy today, we must take our cue from a sufficiently uncontroversial contemporary concept of philosophy instead of any particular historical concept, such as the Peripatetic amalgam of metaphysics, theory of science, and the empirical sciences. Such a strategy provides a sound basis for the inclusion of post-classical thinkers, as well as many classical thinkers who are not falāsifa, in the history of Islamic philosophy without vicious circularity or loss of a normative concept of philosophy