City-Building Process Research Articles

Principles of Urbanscape Transformation in the Historical Perimeter of Split, Croatia

The genesis of the historical core of the city of Split, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, rests on the continuity of urban life. The city has been subject to constant change over the course of almost two millennia, transforming from an ancient imperial palace into today’s city. The ever-changing urban landscape implies the need for a continual dialogue between old and new, especially considering the efforts made throughout history to develop a new image of the city. By analysing three examples—Milesi Palace from the Baroque period, Bajamonti Palace from the age of Classicism, and Nakić Palace from the Secession period, all national heritage listed buildings, the significance of the urban logic behind their construction, as well as the impact these buildings had on the image of the city, is established. All three buildings are located on the perimeter of the city’s public zone, and in different periods, they established new sets of urban rules, which they hold to this day. By researching their influence on the formation of Split’s urban tissue on their immediate and wider surroundings, their role in the city-building process is defined, thus revealing their impact on the formation of the urbanscape, as well as the relationships between architectural heritage and the city’s transformation.

Salinas: A History of Race and Resilience in an Agricultural City by Carol Lynn McKibben

In this community history of Salinas, an agricultural powerhouse in Central California, McKibben outlines the city’s changing ethnic and racial composition since it emerged in the 1860s, eventually to be incorporated as the seat of Monterey County in 1874. The author focuses primarily on Chinese, Japanese, Filipino, and Mexican immigrants, as well as on Dust Bowl migrants, to explore the complicated and nuanced ways by which the lettuce capital of California took shape as a “multiracial, gendered community with a shared belief in American ideals of democracy and equality, even when that belief system proved naïve or misplaced” (5). In that passage lies the crux of McKibben’s argument: Although the city’s residents recognized that all groups were necessary to the endeavor of city-building, not until recent decades did whites begin to acknowledge the contributions of minority groups to any extent. Race relations in Salinas involved “complex mixtures of inclusiveness and marginalization” that nonetheless tended to support “a system of white supremacy” (126). Change in the form of meaningful access to political power finally arrived late in the twentieth century when Salinas became a minority-majority city that is now overwhelmingly Latino/a.McKibben tells this story in nine chronological chapters, consulting a wide range of local sources—records from the Monterey County Historical Society and the chamber of commerce, city-council minutes dating back well into the nineteenth century, the minutes of the Grower-Shipper Association (gsa) that provide insights into labor relations during the Great Depression, local newspapers, and interviews in the collections of the John Steinbeck Library. In addition, the author conducted numerous oral interviews across a wide range of the city’s population. Although this book is largely a local history, it ripples outward to include the economy and demographics of the greater central-California region, statewide immigration (and migration) developments, and evolving federal immigration policy from the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 though the reforms of the 1950s and 1960s. With this layered approach, Salinas contributes to our understanding of cities embedded in rural regions with agricultural economies, and of city-building processes in the context of race relations during periods of rapid demographic change. The book is informed by a number of fields in addition to urban history, including ethnic studies, Chicano/a history, agricultural and labor history, and the history of California and the West.McKibben argues that migrants of all ethnic and racial backgrounds who came to Salinas and the Salinas Valley viewed farming (even tenant farming) as a way to enter the middle class. Her contention that socioeconomic mobility was available for Asians (or at least their American-born children who could own property in California), as well as whites challenges the prediction of McWilliams and Steinbeck that industrialized agricultural production in 1930s California would result in a permanent caste system.1 This path to middle-class life, however, was still limited by white hegemony. It was only “possible for enough members of excluded groups to move into property ownership … to make it appear that there was opportunity for all” (95).Spatial boundaries based on race and class exist in Salinas as elsewhere in the state and nation. The unincorporated adjacent community of Alisal, located east of downtown, housed much of Salinas’ poor and working-class families both before and after Salinas annexed it in 1963, becoming increasingly Latino/a. The Latino/a community, as well as the female population, in Salinas and Alisal were long underserved in terms of infrastructure, housing, education, and political representation. By the closing decades of the twentieth century, however, individual and collective activism had managed to secure gains for them in city government and planning, but, according to McKibben, this new sense of belonging was just sufficient to forestall further challenges to white privilege.

Marginal cities in conflict: emerging geographies of spatial accumulation

This paper discusses how marginal cities surrounded by rich hinterlands in geographies of conflict display city-building processes that transform them into emergent geographies of spatial accumulation. Embracing recent debates on geographies of accumulation in the global South, this paper reveals three interrelated strategies that shape capitalist urbanisation in marginal cities of conflict. The empirical findings of a case study in the Colombian Pacific region indicate that: 1) extractive economies supported by national neoliberal policies nurture weak governance, as reflected in city-building processes that increase sociospatial segregation; 2) the circulation of illegal capital within status quo spatial politics seems to result in rapid urban transformations via land use changes; and 3) spatial accumulation in marginal urban settlements conceals processes of systematic social injustice through euphemisms of economic development. This paper contributes to new conceptualisations derived from an analysis of spatial transformations in marginal(ised) cities under geopolitical economies of violence. Published open access under a CC BY licence. https://creativecommons.org/licences/by/4.0/

Environmental education and its contribution to sustainable cities

Introduction. In 2050, the human population will reach 9.7 billion people, and more than 5 billion will live in urban areas. Anthropic pressure on natural ecosystems has been progressively increasing, and it has reached worrying levels with severe economic and social repercussions. From an ecological point of view, cities act as a hetero-trophic system. They import raw materials, transform them, and dispose their waste, mostly in faraway places. Therefore, the city is an unbalanced system needing more and more rural spaces which are functional for finding resources to continue developing and progressing. This article highlights the importance of environmental education in sustainable city building processes in South European cities. Materials and Methods. As the European Union has intensified its engagement in sustainable cities, only cities awarded by European green capitals were included. Cities from North Europe have been excluded since environmental education has been developed previously. The methodology used in this analysis is the case study. Results. Environmental education is a process that allows people to learn about environmental issues, solve problems, and take action to help the environment. Two cities were included in the analysis: Nantes and Lisbon. Nantes' strategy was to draw attention to the housing problem, improve urban life quality and active participation of citizens in future community choices. Lisbon planned to increase soft mobility, construct new bike paths, and improve the public transport network. Conclusions. The analysis of the two cities, conducted by a comparative methodology, shows the potential intervention areas and indicates how environmental education contributes to a sustainable city. Together, Nantes and Lisbon applied an environmental education strategy based on citizens' participation, involvement, and education. Similar strategies are recommended for the future development of more sustainable cities. Environmental education contributes to the city's sustainable development, promoting awareness among people of ecological problems. At the same time, it stimulates the growth of operational skills, such as a sense of initiative and the ability to assume and take responsibility.

Can we use administrative data to quantify informal housing additions at the parcel level? An analysis of Austin, USA

Scholarship on informal housing is broadening to include more studies of cases in the Global North, with many of them taking advantage of ready data availability to produce quantitative estimates of the extent of the phenomenon even in diffuse contexts where studying informal housing has heretofore been difficult. We introduce a novel technique, Informal Housing Addition at the Parcel Scale (IHAPS). Relying on publicly available administrative tax assessment and building permit datasets and drawing inspiration from building science, IHAPS seeks to identify residential parcels within a city that underwent apparent increases in building area but that did not obtain a legally required building permit. Applying IHAPS to Austin, Texas, USA, we demonstrate the basic soundness of the technique in spite of its generation of false-positive identifications. We conservatively estimate that approximately one out of every 2400 single-family residential parcels in Austin experienced an informal (unpermitted) addition between 2008 and 2018. IHAPS has promise to reveal new insights into informal city-building processes in a Global North context, but also raises ethical and privacy concerns that researchers must consider.

The City Is Burning! Street Economies and the Juxtacity of Kigali, Rwanda

This article is about the juxtaposition—or side-by-side coexistence—of divergent economic, political, and city building processes in Kigali, Rwanda. I focus on abazunguzayi, nomadic merchants whose public presence in Kigali’s streets are seen as antithetical to the global city aesthetics that urban managers wish to stamp on Kigali as its future image. I argue that abazunguzayi shift the weight of authority from formalized sources to the streets by leveraging an internal contradiction of transforming Kigali’s surface into an optimally controlled high-tech city with world-class infrastructure municipal aspirations to produce Kigali’s future as a hub of high-end tourism and international conferences ironically depend on the very subjects and practices that are considered antithetical to that future. I argue that this is occurring for two reasons. First, Kigali’s street economy is embedded in the daily operations of the city. Abazunguzayi run discount economies that the city’s low-paid workforce depends on to reproduce their labor. This includes the labor that is necessary to build the envisioned new Kigali. Second, while everyone participates in the street economy, women abazunguzayi pose a specific problem for city authorities. As crackdowns on the street trade are becoming more violent and visibly target women, city authorities undermine the national project to promote “women’s empowerment” as an element of Rwanda’s world-class brand.

Policy Roadmap for Development Process and Re-establishing Women Friendly City Policy in Korea- Focusing on the Case of Dangjin City

Background/Objectives: The purpose of this study is to suggest the policy task and direction so that the projects for women-friendly city can level by analyzing Dangjin City’s women-friendly city building process, by suggesting the Dangjin City’s vision and road map for the women-friendly city.Method/Statistical Analysis: The research conducted trend analysis, questionnaire survey and FGI. For this purpose, we surveyed , 800 citizens (about 0.5% of Dangjin 166,000) were taken as sampling frame and through the quota sampling frame by gender, age and area, total 782 questionnaires (final effective ratio 97.8%) were collected and utilized for analysis. FGI was conducted through 22 people from three groups of citizens, experts and officials.Findings: As a result, we set up our vision of ‘Because woman is happy, your family is happy, your Dangjin’, For this vision, 4 major goals of ‘Diffusion of citizen’s feeling on the women-friendly city’, ‘Building safety city to live comfortably’, ‘Building the human-oriented employment environment’, ‘Inter-regional shared growth without alienation’ were established.Improvements/Applications: The women-friendly city in Korea, it requires the policy direction to establish the policy reflected with regional characteristics and step-by-step and feasible policy sharing with the local resident.

Lowcountry at High Tide: A History of Flooding, Drainage, and Reclamation in Charleston, South Carolina by Christina Rae Butler, and: The Place with No Edge: An Intimate History of People, Technology, and the Mississippi River Delta by Adam Mandelman

Reviewed by: Lowcountry at High Tide: A History of Flooding, Drainage, and Reclamation in Charleston, South Carolina by Christina Rae Butler, and: The Place with No Edge: An Intimate History of People, Technology, and the Mississippi River Delta by Adam Mandelman John Dean Davis Christina Rae Butler. Lowcountry at High Tide: A History of Flooding, Drainage, and Reclamation in Charleston, South Carolina. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2020. ISBN: 9781643360621 Hardcover: 304 pages Adam Mandelman. The Place with No Edge: An Intimate History of People, Technology, and the Mississippi River Delta. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2020. ISBN: 9780807172834 Hardcover: 304 pages Fifty percent of the land under Charleston, South Carolina is artificial. The effort to transform what was a "marshy, flood prone finger of land" into one of the U.S. South's most important coastal cities has been nothing short of monumental.1 Christina Rae Butler's Lowcountry at High Tide: A History of Flooding, Drainage, and Reclamation in Charleston, South Carolina recounts in detail this centuries-long struggle between the city and the geology of the soft landscape on which it was built. Charleston, like much of the lowcountry coastal plain along the southeast and Gulf coasts, has historically been a place where what we know (or think we know) about building becomes irrelevant or, at least, significantly transformed. Butler divides the building of modern Charleston into three categories that outline reclamation, filling, and drainage as distinct modes of construction, each with their own design, engineering, and labor issues, means of financing, and assembly of political support. At the heart of the construction of Charleston is an alliance between public health and private investment that has shaped the city's margins into profitable and mosquito-free building lots. Butler's accounting, however, for the various causes and effects of urban expansion goes beyond simply parsing how much bureaucratic paternalism and naked real estate speculation might be responsible for urban form. Instead, this construction history acknowledges the technical and environmental aspects of city development, placing much needed emphasis on how labor, race, and class played important roles in raising the city from the mud. Butler's technical knowledge and familiarity with building practices animate just how laborious the city-building process was. Charleston lacked durable building materials, making [End Page 125] stone masonry prohibitively expensive and forcing ad hoc and creative construction methods. Using archival specifications and bid documents, Lowcountry at High Tide details building practices, describing palmetto gabions and cribs, pile-driving machines, and even the sequencing of planks and placement of bricks. This level of detail provides an excellent case study for the material history of construction and humanizes citybuilding as both personal and bodily practice. Butler interleaves a larger citywide narrative with portraits of hard work in moments of crisis. For example, in an episode describing a frantic three-shift construction effort while centrifugal pumps kept the waters at bay behind a cofferdam, the reader can appreciate Butler's technical skill in illuminating what the stakes really were. Lowcountry at High Tide's focus on the scavenger provides its most fascinating intervention in urban historiography. Scavengers, who were mostly Black, appear as the true urban maintainers, essential for the city's function and responsible for much of its surface area. Scavengers swept streets of all sorts of detritus and then used this organic fill to plug the city's overly deep cellars and marshy pits. The fight over the geographical limits of Charleston's grade line was extensive, lasted hundreds of years, and was waged with weapons of clay, sawdust, and all manner of urban filth. Black scavengers formed the front line of this struggle. There was little concealed about the way Charlestonians felt about this kind of work, relegating this essential but truly odious task to marginalized sections of an urban society with a strict racial and class hierarchy. More urban histories might benefit from centering these castaway characters and how they underpin the civic and economic functions that occupy most historians' attention. The alliance between public-minded, progressive governance reforms and lucrative private investment set the stage for the explosion of development in the twentieth century that formed Charleston's modern...

Reprioritizing the Human Factor in Building Gulf Cities

Until relatively recently, the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC), a regional intergovernmental political and economic union consisting of the Arab states of the Arabian Gulf (Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the UAE), was predominantly a nonurban region. Most of its inhabitants were nomadic Bedouins who were constantly traveling in search of scarce water resources, traders who were always between destinations, and a smaller number of agriculturalists and fishermen. A small minority constructed and occupied several residential agglomerations, compact and confined, consistent with the limited economic and social needs of people at that time. This trend remained true until the 1950s, when larger social, economic, and political shifts dramatically and permanently changed the landscape of the region. The major trigger was the exploration of oil, leading to economic wealth, in addition to other factors, including globalization, aspirations for modernity, and technological advancements, especially those enabling water provision. In the context of a harsh natural setting, this meant that urbanity would become the new favored form of living. What followed was rapid urbanization, mostly machine-like, with little regard for humans living in the newly formed cities. In Saudi Arabia, for example, urban residents made up only 10 percent of the total population in 1950. By 2005, this figure skyrocketed to 85 percent (Figure 1). The present-day urban scene in the Gulf is globally unique in many respects. Not only did the process of city building occur in a short period of time, but the intensity and scale have been largely unprecedented. About 80 percent of the region's population now lives in urban areas, making the Gulf one of the most urbanized regions in the world. In Kuwait, for example, 99 percent of the population occupies only 8 percent of the country's land area. In Qatar, the capital city of Doha alone is home to about 55 percent of the country's total population. The physical characteristics of this urbanism are also unique. It resulted in an urban form mostly characterized by suburban-like downtowns and low densities in expanding territories.

Revisiting the role of architects in planning large-scale housing in the USSR: the birth of socialist residential districts in Tallinn, Estonia, 1957–1979

ABSTRACTIn Central and Eastern Europe and the Former Soviet Union, housing estates are often associated with inhumane architecture and unwelcoming public space, an outcome that can be attributed to strict design requirements in a rigid centralized system. Due to the uniformity of residential housing produced during socialist times, both the design process and its master – the architect – are believed to have played only minor roles in shaping townscapes. This study, situated in the large housing estates of Tallinn, Estonia, challenges these assumptions using analyses of archival material (relating to planning procedures during state socialism) and articles in specialized magazines. The study also explains – through first-hand interviews with senior architects who were key players in building socialist cities – the relations between Soviet regulations and vital elements of the city-building process, including creativity, power, and artistry. Analysis of primary source materials highlights an oversimplification of socialist modernism, which suggests more nuanced explanations for town planning outcomes. Findings suggest that regulations issued in Moscow for Union of Soviet Socialist Republic-wide planning played a less important role than previously assumed in town planning outcomes in Estonia. International modernist city planning ideals, combined with local expertise, strongly influenced town planning practice in the Soviet ‘West’.

DIGITALIZATION PROCESS IN UKRAINE AS A PREREQUISITE FOR THE SMART CITY CONCEPT DEVELOPMENT

The paper aims to review Smart city building process in Ukraine, its successful examples, and possible drawbacks on the way and based on this suggests the steps country should undertake for the future development of this concept. Taking into account that spreading of ICTs (digitalization) plays an important role in laying the foundation for smart solutions’ development and usage, we have also provided an overview of this process in Ukraine and compared Ukraine’s positions on the global arena. To do this, we have used a number of international indexes (ICT Development Index, Networked Readiness Index, Global Innovation Index, E-Government Development Index, E-Participation Index) to show an objective picture and to cover as many aspects as possible (ICT readiness, ICT usage, ICT skills, and other features build on top of these). Lack of the required infrastructure and equal proper access to ICTs within the country is one of the major issues Ukraine has to deal with right now. We have also compared current positions of Ukraine against the target values specified in the Strategy of Information Society Development of Ukraine-2020. The research is based on the method of theoretical, logical, and systematic analysis of the literature (articles, strategies and agendas, international indexes etc.) along with the methods of comparative analysis that allow comparing smart solutions among the selected cities. We have composed a comparison table for successful smart solutions available currently in Ukraine for the selected cities (Kyiv, Lviv, Kharkiv, Ivano-Frankivsk, Vinnytsia, Dnipro) within different areas. We have also conducted a SWOT-analysis to reveal strong and weak points for the further concept development, as well as the possible consequences and risks. The article suggests the steps for further successful development of smart city concept in Ukraine. These steps should encourage the dialogue on the topic within our country. We believe that cooperation of all stakeholders on the national level is necessary to 1) Establish a common platform for sharing best practices and spreading successful solutions faster; 2) Develop a measurement tool to compare both the progress among different cities and the progress for the specific city within some time period. While locally each city should work on its own Smart City Agenda and Roadmap, ensuring the interests of all groups is taken into account. But of course, active dialogue on both city and national levels, as well as within the axis Government – Industry – University – Civil Society is a core component of smart city building process.

Integrative multiplicity through suburban realities: exploring diversity through public spaces in Scarborough

ABSTRACTQuestions of “integration” are normatively assumed to promote particular ideals of the multicultural city and lead to a “settlement” culture that bodes well with the hegemonic majority. This paper, however, questions the concept from an alternative perspective – that is, it aims to explore how “integration” is imagined and understood by displaced migrants through the contextual specificities of multiple and peripheral “public spaces” – defined in this paper as the everyday practices of integrative multiplicity. Exploring these questions in Scarborough, a post-war primarily ethno-racialized suburb of Toronto, the unique experiences of migrants, many who have faced histories of trauma and violence suggest that the settlement experience is not devoid of anxiety and pain. Memories of places and communities left behind, sometimes never to be returned to, harness a longing and deeper need for home-making often spilling into the public realm. Understanding public space and its inherent conceptual and political complexity as defined, used, and valued by recent migrants, allows integration to be understood through the dynamics of power relations. The findings reveal how recent migrants not only understand and use the city but also how they reflect upon and envision the city-building process, through their own individual subjectivities of inclusion/place-making and exclusion/displacement. Through such complex spaces of encounter, civic engagement and grounded experiences, the participants frame Scarborough in multiple and metaphorical forms: from a City of Refuge and Peace; City of Memory, Desire, and Imagination; City of Multifariousness; to a City of Civic Engagement and Fluid Resistance. This stands in stark contrast from how the city is framed in dominant discourse and the unsettling debates on how to reform it.

Disentangling the geography of finance and real estate: competing space-times of decision-making and uneven spatial development

The versatile ‘city building’ processes are in the focus of this issue. The author’s papers deal with a plurality of related issues such as the complexities of the increasing transparency of local property markets or the tight relations between city planners and (inter-)national investors. As the built environment decides on a city’s economic prospect and determines future planning and development opportunities, the consequences of city building processes are multifaceted. Financial processes of urban (re)development, for example, are discussed at the cutting edge of a larger process of uneven development, which is rooted in the structure of the capitalist mode of production and fuels controversial debates on the ownership of the city. The current edition aims to attract further attention to the complex of financial matters and the production of the built environment with the intention to locate both more centrally within geography, planning, and economics. Against this background, this introduction spans the idea of the decision-making itself in financial and real estate markets, which can neither be limited to a singular moment nor be separated from the context in which they take place. Disentangling these market interdependencies and illustrating the context dependency of decision-making is a common theme in all of the papers included in this issue.

Commentary: Is Urban Design Still Urban Planning? An Exploration and Response

This article considers the factors contributing to the recent international trend for a differentiation between planning and urban design. It considers these highly related fields from the perspective of neoliberalism, global competition, and the doxa of New Urbanism. The article argues that urban design needs to be retained as an important subset of planning practice, concerned with the physical design of cities, so that the core planning values of serving the public interest in the attainment of social equity, democratic civil society, and an ecologically sustainable future may be maintained in our city-building processes.

The Code of the City: Standards and the Hidden Language of Place Making

Standards and codes dictate virtually all aspects of urban development. The same standards for subdividing land, grading, laying streets and utilities, and configuring rights-of-way and street widths to accommodate cars (rather than pedestrians) have been adopted in many areas of the world regardless of variations in local environments. In The Code of the City, Eran Ben-Joseph examines the relationship between standards and place making. He traces the evolution of codes and standards and analyzes their impact on the modern city and its suburbs, arguing that it is time for development regulations to reflect site-specific and localized physical design. Standards and codes were meant to bring order and safety to the city building process. But now, Ben-Joseph argues, these accumulated rules and their widespread application illustrate a disconnect between the original rationale for their existence and their actual effect on the natural and human environment. To discover how this separation of codes from local conditions came about, he looks at the origins of urban standards and their use, from early civilization through the rapid urbanization of the nineteenth century. He provides examples that demonstrate how standards have shaped residential developments and reshaped the natural landscape. And he considers alternatives for the future -- innovation and de facto deregulation by private developers, new design technologies, and place-based regulations reflecting local conditions. Standards, writes Ben-Joseph, will continue to shape the built environment, but they must be flexible enough to allow for innovation and contribute to the development of sustainable and desirable communities.

Culture, creativity and spatial planning

In the past, culture has been a widely neglected subject in spatial planning. In a period of globalisation and increasing urban competition, however, the cultural dimension of urban and regional development has earned more atttention from academics and planning professionals in cities and regions. This article presents the various dimensions of culture in spatial planning and city building processes in Europe, its role for urban imaging and marketing, for local economic development and job creation, and for sustaining identity and quality of life for citizens in the twenty-first century.

Charles H. Cheney of California

In the 1910s, Charles Henry Cheney appeared as a dynamo in a new planning movement in California. He established the first state-wide conference on city planning, persuaded the legislature to pass the first city planning enabling act and encouraged cities to create a planning commission to prepare a master plan. Although most of the newly established planning commissions began to prepare a zoning ordinance, Cheney assisted their efforts because he perceived zoning as a primary element of a master plan. He drafted the first California city zoning enabling act to give unchartered cities the authority for establishing single-family residence districts, and prepared a number of zoning ordinances in the West Coast. However, in the 1920s, facing over-emphasis on the economic and social aspects of city planning, he became a guardian of beauty and drafted protective covenants including an art jury and architectural control for newly developed picturesque garden suburbs. Cheneymoved to Palos Verdes, one of those garden suburbs in Southern California, and devoted his life to its city building process until his death. This paper provides an overview of Cheney's planning practices and thoughts.

Local Planning and Economic Restructuring: A Synthetic Interpretation of Urban Redevelopment

This paper presents an analysis of commercial land redevelopment in the Phoenix Metropolitan area during the late 1980s and early 1990s. Using four specific cases, I show how local landscape change is connected to the broader forces of urban restructuring. In addition, I discuss important differences between the city-building process in a central core and a suburban process within this structural context. The local deviations from the structural context are explained vis-à-vis the Phoenix regional economy, conservative political culture, and relative youth on the American urban frontier.

Charles H. Cheney : A Planning Pioneer of California

In the early 1910's, Charles H. Cheney appeared as the first planning pioneer of California, who eventually organized the first state-wide conference on city planning to make the legislature pass the first city planning enabling act. In the early 1920's, however, when the emerging regional planning movement in Los Angeles begun to overshadow his achievements, he became an advocate of architectural controls and moved to Palos Verdes Estates near Los Angeles to participate in its city building process deeply from the outset until his death. He seemed to have become a guardian of beauty in the 1920's while at first he appeared as an opponent against the "City Beautiful". However the careful examination of his works reveals his thought on city planning was consistent all his life.

The City-Building Process: Housing and Services in New Milwaukee Neighborhoods 1880-1910

The City-Building Process: Housing and Services in New Milwaukee Neighborhoods 1880-1910