Citizen Science Monitoring Research Articles

Citizen science supports national reporting of a Sustainable Development Goal indicator: A case study of plastic debris density on beaches

Global momentum to address plastic pollution has led to the development of national processes to monitor plastics into and within the environment. The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) provide guidance for reporting on plastic pollution, although compiling national estimates remains a challenge. Data availability remains a key barrier, which could be addressed through engagement with the citizen science community, which collects and maintains data at a resolution suitable for SDG reporting. Here, we demonstrate a process that uses citizen science monitoring of plastic debris on beaches to report on SDGs at the national scale. The study uses the Australian Marine Debris Initiative (AMDI) Database, which is composed of data submissions from over 1400 organisations across Australia. The AMDI was used to provide initial estimates of plastic debris density both nationally and across Natural Resource Management areas (NRMs). Before analysis, the database was filtered for data quality and alignment with guidance for SDG reporting (i.e., SDG Indicator 14.1.1b), resulting in the analysis of 3144 events across 538 sites between 2014 and 2019 (inclusive). The average density of plastic debris on beaches across Australia was between 0.155 and 0.279 counts m−2, with management relevant trends identified across NRMs. This study demonstrates the potential for the citizen science community to support SDG reporting and management processes, which could inform and enable actions to address plastic pollution.

Genomic characterization of Volzhskoe tick virus (Bunyaviricetes) from a Hyalomma marginatum tick, Hungary

Hyalomma marginatum, a vector for the high-consequence pathogen, the Crimean–Congo hemorrhagic fever virus (CCHFV), needs particular attention due to its impact on public health. Although it is a known vector for CCHFV, its general virome is largely unexplored. Here, we report findings from a citizen science monitoring program aimed to understand the prevalence and diversity of tick-borne pathogens, particularly focusing on Hyalomma ticks in Hungary. In 2021, we identified one adult specimen of Hyalomma marginatum and subjected it to Illumina-based viral metagenomic sequencing. Our analysis revealed sequences of the uncharacterized Volzhskoe tick virus, an unclassified member of the class Bunyaviricetes. The in silico analysis uncovered key genetic regions, including the glycoprotein and the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) coding regions. Phylogenetic analysis indicated a close relationship between our Volzhskoe tick virus sequences and other unclassified Bunyaviricetes species. These related species of unclassified Bunyaviricetes were detected in vastly different geolocations. These findings highlight the remarkable diversity of tick specific viruses and emphasize the need for further research to understand the transmissibility, seroreactivity or the potential pathogenicity of Volzhskoe tick virus and related species.

Coastal citizen science monitoring and suggested conservation strategy: ghost crab survey at Suao Dakenggu, Taiwan

Coastal citizen science monitoring and suggested conservation strategy: ghost crab survey at Suao Dakenggu, Taiwan

Validation of cheap axial passive sampler and procedure suitable for atmospheric NO2 community-based monitoring

Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) is an air pollutant highly impacting on human health, and its measurement is crucial for air quality assessment. Use of passive samplers for long-term large-scale monitoring is a reasonably reliable and economic alternative to more sophisticated and expensive equipment employed in active air sampling by environmental control authorities. In recent years the Citizen Science approach, based on low-cost devices, is spreading more and more in environmental control. Passive samplers available on the market (like the consolidated “Palmes” tubes) are often used in community-based monitoring campaigns. We describe validation of a new cheap axial diffusion tube for NO2 monitoring, used in combination with a new user-friendly App for smartphone that represents an innovation to speed up recording of geo-localization and exposition period data. Affordability and availability of materials, simple construction protocol and easy App procedure, allow possible self-production by school students and non-expert users, making the proposed tube a potential tool to realize extended Citizen Science monitoring campaigns. Accuracy within 25% and precision within 20%, evidenced in validation, show comparability of the tube performance with Palmes-type tubes and agreement with the official monitoring station results. Two small-scale trial monitoring campaigns, involving high school students, were performed to test the efficacy of the proposed “tube-App” system in combining educational impact and community value of air quality monitoring.

Implementing a citizen science bird monitoring project in the Grampians/Gariwerd National Park, Victoria, Australia

ABSTRACT Global bird populations are threatened by ongoing habitat loss and climate change. Inconsistent and short-term funding of faunal surveys in Australia makes population and distribution changes difficult to detect. To meet this challenge, alternative methods of supplementing regular surveys by professional ornithologists have been proffered, including surveys by trained citizen scientists. Here we outline the development, implementation and assessment of the Great Gariwerd Bird Survey (GGBS), a citizen science (CS) monitoring project designed to address long-term management questions in vulnerable Stringybark Heathy Woodland in Grampians/Gariwerd National Park. Forty volunteers that met appropriate criteria were selected and trained in practical 10-week/40-h courses. We assessed data from 288 2-ha/20-min surveys undertaken in autumn and spring 2021 at 36 sites, ran workshops to improve surveyor skills and data quality and assessed trainee experiences and program content through online anonymous surveys. Concurrent professional field ornithologist surveys enabled cross validation of CS surveys. Overlapping species accumulation curves for professional and citizen scientist surveys reflected very high correlations for site species diversity (r = 0.836) and abundances (r = 0.768). In autumn, the professional surveyor recorded significantly more species and birds than CS surveyors. Additional training in the identification of cryptic birds and challenging calls partially addressed the numerical differences in the following spring survey. This project demonstrates the potential for valuable long-term ecological data collection by well-trained citizen scientists with benefits to community environmental knowledge and participation despite some manageable obstacles. Participant surveys showed highly positive program perceptions, reflected by ongoing involvement in the GGBS.

Citizen science monitoring of beach and dune erosion during Hurricane Fiona

ABSTRACT Hurricane Fiona made landfall as an extra-tropical storm along the north shore of Prince Edward Island (PEI), Canada, in October 2022. The state of the beach and dune immediately before and after the storm was captured through the Coastie citizen science beach and dune photo monitoring initiative, as part of the global CoastSnap Community Beach Monitoring program. Coastie monitoring sites within Prince Edward Island National Park (PEINP) revealed extensive dune scarping, capturing a 12–17 m retreat of the foredune at Brackley and Cavendish Beaches. Using foredune scarp and post-storm shoreline positions, volumetric losses between 28 and 76 m3 m−1 are estimated from profiles located within the first 150 m of the stations. The average horizontal position of the projected foredune scarp position was within 2.8 m of the position identified from high accuracy unoccupied aerial system (UAS) surveys, corresponding to a mean absolute difference of 15.3 m3 m−1 or 45.3% for dune volume changes estimated from the images. Continued monitoring will yield further improvements to the volume loss estimation methodology, and insight on the timing and mechanisms of beach and dune recovery.

Citizen science monitoring uncovers resilience of intertidal assemblages in a tropical urban environment

Coastal intertidal sand and mudflats are home to a rich and uniquely evolved ecological community. With increasing knowledge of the importance of these ecosystems and the threats they are facing, efforts to conserve them have become a priority to many coastal managers. However, these can be constrained by knowledge gaps and resource limitations, and citizen science is an emerging strategy to complement traditional methods of data collection. Intertidal Watch is a citizen science program that was set up in Singapore in 2016, to better understand and monitor the biodiversity of Singapore’s urban tropical intertidal ecosystems. It also aims to increase public awareness of marine habitats by involving members of the community in citizen science. Through analyzing eight years of data collected by Intertidal Watch, this study documented rich ecological diversities in four intertidal sand and mudflats located in areas that had been reclaimed between the 1970s and 1980s, with evident community distinctions between a macroalgae-dominant site and the remaining seagrass-dominant sites. While there were fluctuations in biological populations over time, study sites were observed to largely remain resilient to changes in direct anthropogenic pressures. Our study highlights the power of citizen science in facilitating systematic conservation while bringing about positive community benefits.

Monitoring invasive macroalgae in southern Portugal: drivers and citizen science contribution

Under certain environmental and oceanographic conditions, macroalgae can overgrow and accumulate in massive quantities on beaches, causing serious ecological and economic impacts. To address this problem, a citizen science monitoring platform was created to determine the spatial and temporal distribution of macroalgae accumulations along the beaches of Algarve in southern Portugal, with the aim to assess the extent of beach-cast events and their relationship with abiotic factors. A Redundancy Analysis (RDA) and a permutational analysis of variance (PERMANOVA) were carried out to explore the relationship between macroalgae accumulation level and the abiotic variables: sea surface temperature, wind speed, wind direction, currents, maximum sea level, significant wave height, salinity, nitrate, ammonium, phosphate, precipitation and radiation. The citizen science campaign showed great participation, resulting in 404 submissions between July 2021 and September 2023. The campaign revealed that three species of macroalgae accumulated on the beaches of Algarve, Ulva sp. (with the presence of Ectocarpales and Dyctiotales) along the sandy eastern coast, and the invasive species Asparagopsis armata and Rugulopteryx okamurae in the rocky central and western beaches, respectively. The accumulations of R. okamurae increased from 2021 to 2023, were registered throughout the year and were more abundant than those of Ulva sp. and A. armata, which were only observed in spring and summer. The highest levels of R. okamurae beach-cast depositions were related to strong wave conditions, and high sea surface temperature and salinity. The accumulation of Ulva sp. was related to high sea surface temperature and salinity whereas A. armata was also correlated with winds parallel to the shore (NW-W). PERMANOVA analysis revealed that sea surface temperature and wave conditions had a significant effect on the overall abundance of macroalgae beach-cast accumulations. Overall, our citizen science campaign effectively involved the public, leading to the collection of important data on monitoring macroalgae accumulations. Through these findings, we were able to pinpoint the environmental, atmospheric, and hydrodynamic factors that contribute to their development, movement, and buildup along the Algarve coastlines.

SCShores: a comprehensive shoreline dataset of Spanish sandy beaches from a citizen-science monitoring programme

Abstract. Sandy beaches are ever-changing environments, as they experience constant reshaping due to the external forces of tides, waves, and winds. The shoreline position, which marks the boundary between water and sand, holds great significance in the fields of coastal geomorphology, coastal engineering, and coastal management. It is crucial to understand how beaches evolve over time, but high-resolution shoreline datasets are scarce, and establishing monitoring systems can be costly. To address this, we present a new dataset of the shorelines of five Spanish sandy beaches located in contrasting environments that is derived from the CoastSnap citizen-science shoreline monitoring programme. The use of citizen science within environmental projects is increasing, as it allows both community awareness and the collection of large amounts of data that are otherwise difficult to obtain. This dataset includes a total of 1721 individual shorelines composed of 3 m spaced points alongshore, accompanied by additional attributes, such as elevation value and acquisition date, allowing for easy comparisons. Our dataset offers a unique perspective on how citizen science can provide reliable datasets that are useful for management and geomorphological studies. The shoreline dataset, along with relevant metadata, is available at https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.8056415 (González-Villanueva et al., 2023b).

Lessons learned from community and citizen science monitoring on the Elwha River restoration project

Community and citizen science (CCS) projects – initiatives that involve public participation in scientific research – can both sustain and expand long-term monitoring of large dam removal projects. In this article, we discuss our perspectives on CCS associated with the Elwha River dam removals. We summarize how the public has been or could be involved in monitoring and distill lessons learned for other large dam removal projects. Much of the Elwha monitoring involved technical field work requiring training and incurring potential liability risks, guiding projects towards smaller-scale public involvement. Partnering with organizations that have capacity for volunteer management expanded CCS opportunities and provided logistical support to project managers committed to public engagement. We found that many projects engaged with students and/or with paid or unpaid interns; compensating participants in various ways can help to create reciprocal relationships that support long-term monitoring. In the future, other large dam removals could consider planning ahead for community involvement in dam removal monitoring to accommodate the technical and potentially hazardous nature of the work – broadening who may be able to participate. In addition, involving community members in setting research agendas could be an important first step in engaging them in long-term monitoring, in turn facilitating multi-generational research at the timescale of landscape-level changes. Finally, explicit relationship-building with Indigenous communities can enhance the benefits of community engagement in dam removal science for all involved.

Long-term trends of local bird populations based on monitoring schemes: are they suitable for justifying management measures?

Local biodiversity monitoring is important to assess the effects of global change, but also to evaluate the performance of landscape and wildlife protection, since large-scale assessments may buffer local fluctuations, rare species tend to be underrepresented, and management actions are usually implemented on local scales. We estimated population trends of 58 bird species using open-population N-mixture models based on count data in two localities in southeastern Spain, which have been collected according to a citizen science monitoring program (SACRE, Monitoring Common Breeding Birds in Spain) over 21 and 15 years, respectively. We performed different abundance models for each species and study area, accounting for imperfect detection of individuals in replicated counts. After selecting the best models for each species and study area, empirical Bayes methods were used for estimating abundances, which allowed us to calculate population growth rates (λ) and finally population trends. We also compared the two local population trends and related them with national and European trends, and species functional traits (phenological status, dietary, and habitat specialization characteristics). Our results showed increasing trends for most species, but a weak correlation between populations of the same species from both study areas. In general, local population trends were consistent with the trends observed at national and continental scales, although contrasting patterns exist for several species, mainly with increasing local trends and decreasing Spanish and European trends. Moreover, we found no evidence of a relationship between population trends and species traits. We conclude that using open-population N-mixture models is an appropriate method to estimate population trends, and that citizen science-based monitoring schemes can be a source of data for such analyses. This modeling approach can help managers to assess the effectiveness of their actions at the local level in the context of global change.

Opportunities and challenges for monitoring a recolonizing large herbivore using citizen science.

Monitoring is a prerequisite for evidence-based wildlife management and conservation planning, yet conventional monitoring approaches are often ineffective for species occurring at low densities. However, some species such as large mammals are often observed by lay people and this information can be leveraged through citizen science monitoring schemes. To ensure that such wildlife monitoring efforts provide robust inferences, assessing the quantity, quality, and potential biases of citizen science data is crucial. For Eurasian moose (Alces alces), a species currently recolonizing north-eastern Germany and occurring in very low numbers, we applied three citizen science tools: a mail/email report system, a smartphone application, and a webpage. Among these monitoring tools, the mail/email report system yielded the greatest number of moose reports in absolute and in standardized (corrected for time effort) terms. The reported moose were predominantly identified as single, adult, male individuals, and reports occurred mostly during late summer. Overlaying citizen science data with independently generated habitat suitability and connectivity maps showed that members of the public detected moose in suitable habitats but not necessarily in movement corridors. Also, moose detections were often recorded near roads, suggestive of spatial bias in the sampling effort. Our results suggest that citizen science-based data collection can be facilitated by brief, intuitive digital reporting systems. However, inference from the resulting data can be limited due to unquantified and possibly biased sampling effort. To overcome these challenges, we offer specific recommendations such as more structured monitoring efforts involving the public in areas likely to be roamed by moose for improving quantity, quality, and analysis of citizen science-based data for making robust inferences.

Detection of Secondary Microplastics in an Aquatic Mesocosm by Means of Object-Based Image Analysis

When plastics are discarded, they do not biodegrade and instead break down over time into progressively smaller particles, termed secondary microplastics, which adversely impact biota and human health as well as persist in the environment for centuries. Our research objective was to evaluate the capabilities of object-based image analyses in detecting compositionally varied microplastics suspended in an aquatic mesocosm under no-slip and turbulent water conditions. We found that the presence of polypropylene, polyethylene terephthalate, and low-density polyethylene microplastic pollution in both single-type and mixed-type suspensions was not detectable by either average red (R), average blue (B), average green (G), or average RBG pixel intensities, but was significantly detectable by means of total RBG pixel intensity from digital imagery of the surface-water. Our findings suggest that object-based image analyses of surface waters to quantify pixel information is better suited for monitoring the presence and absence of suspended microplastics, rather than for the stepwise determination of microplastic concentrations. We propose the development of a smartphone application to facilitate citizen-science monitoring of microplastic contamination as well as comment on future applications utilizing drone imagery to boost cloud-based mapping spatiotemporal plumes.

Bird predation on Roseau cane scale as revealed by a web image search and querying a citizen monitoring database

AbstractAn invasion of Roseau cane scale, Nipponaclerda biwakoensis, native to East Asia, is associated with recent widespread dieback of common reed stands in the Mississippi River Delta, Louisiana. A previous study suggested that, in its native range, the combined mortality from Common Reed Bunting Emberiza schoeniclus and parasitoid wasps may control the abundance of Roseau cane scale. However, there is limited knowledge about which other bird species may prey on Roseau cane scale or the feeding patterns of these birds. Here we used web search and citizen science monitoring data to tabulate bird predation events on Roseau cane scales across sites in Japan and determine which bird species may be the most important predators and when the observed feeding typically occurs. We scanned web entries using both Google image searches and the social networking services including Twitter, Instagram, and Facebook. Additionally, we accessed long‐term field observation records obtained by volunteer monitoring conducted by the members of the Kanagawa Branch of the Wild Bird Society of Japan. By using these citizen science approaches, we detected 16 bird species, mainly Common Reed Bunting but also other migratory and resident species, preying on the Roseau cane scale in reed beds throughout central Japan and most detection occurred during the winter. This study demonstrates that biological information obtained from publicly available data from citizen observers can be useful for exploring ecological patterns of various species including potential predators against invasive species.

Trends in butterfly populations in UK gardens—New evidence from citizen science monitoring

Abstract Private gardens are recognised as potentially important refugia for butterflies. Yet little is known about how gardens might be contributing to butterfly conservation, as their restricted accessibility has meant that garden habitats are not well‐represented in traditional monitoring schemes. Garden BirdWatch (GBW) is the UK's largest structured bird survey, comprising over 25 years of weekly bird counts from more than 14,000 gardens, predominantly occupying suburban and rural locations. Since 2007, a subset of GBW participants have additionally recorded the weekly abundances of butterflies. Using data for 14 seasons (2007–2020) from 7971 gardens with consistent butterfly monitoring, we present the first garden‐specific, national trends for 22 widespread butterfly species (37% of all UK butterflies). Half of the species investigated increased significantly in abundance in gardens between 2007 and 2020. Conversely, only one species, Wall (Lasiommata megera), showed a marginal reduction, though this change was not statistically significant. A strong, positive association between these new, habitat‐focused trends and those for UK butterflies more broadly, previously reported by the UK Butterfly Monitoring Scheme (UKBMS), indicates that patterns of abundance in gardens are largely a reflection of the changes that are occurring nationally. However, butterflies do appear to be faring better in gardens compared to the wider landscape. Averaging trends across non‐migratory species revealed that GBW recorded significantly greater increases over time than UKBMS. Effective monitoring of butterflies in gardens can produce reliable and informative population trends, and it provides important evidence of the significant role gardens play in sustaining butterfly populations.

Awareness, detection and management of new and emerging tree pests and pathogens in Europe: stakeholders’ perspectives

Emerging and invasive tree pests and pathogens in Europe are increasing in number and range, having impacts on biodiversity, forest services, ecosystems and human well-being. Stakeholders involved in tree and forest management contribute to the detection and management of new and emerging tree pests and pathogens (PnPs). We surveyed different groups of stakeholders in European countries. The stakeholders were mainly researchers, tree health surveyors and forest managers, as well as forest owners, nurseries, policy-makers, advisors, forestry authorities, NGOs and civil society. We investigated which tools they used to detect and manage PnPs, surveyed their current PnP awareness and knowledge and collated the new and emerging PnP species of concern to them. The 237 respondents were based in 15 European countries, with the majority from the United Kingdom, France and the Czech Republic. There was a strong participation of respondents with a work focus on research and surveying, whereas timber traders and plant importers were less represented. Respondents were surveyed on 18 new, emerging PnPs in Europe and listed an additional 37 pest species and 21 pathogen species as potential future threats. We found that species on EPPO’s list of ‘priority pests’ were better known than those not listed. Stakeholders working in urban environments were more aware of PnPs compared to those working in rural areas. Stakeholders’ awareness of PnPs was not related to the number of new, emerging PnP species present in a country. Stakeholders want access to more detection and management tools, including long-term citizen-science monitoring, maps showing spread and range of new PnPs, pest identification smartphone apps, hand-held detection devices, drone monitoring and eDNA metabarcoding. To help facilitate better forest health across Europe, they called for mixed forest development, reduced nursery stock movement, biosecurity and data sharing amongst organisations. These results indicate that stakeholder knowledge of a few key PnP may be good, but given that the large diversity of threats is so large and future risks unknown, we conclude that multiple and varied methods for generic detection, mitigation and management methods, many in development, are needed in the hands of stakeholders surveying and managing trees and woodlands in Europe.

Scientific and traditional knowledge meet: diet of the lowland tapir Tapirus terrestris in the Orinoquia region of Colombia

The lowland tapir Tapirus terrestris is the second largest mammal in South America. It occupies a wide variety of ecosystems where it fulfills key functional roles. It is mainly folivorous, supplementing its diet with fruits, insects, and aquatic invertebrates. The lowland tapir is considered fundamental in shaping forest undergrowth and in seed dispersal processes. Despite its functional importance, ecological aspects related to diet, habitat use, and food preferences are still unknown in much of its geographic range. Currently, these aspects in the Colombian Orinoquia are unknown. We wanted to develop an approximation to the diet of the lowland tapir in the Colombian Orinoquia based on analysis of fecal samples and traditional knowledge derived from citizen science monitoring. Fecal samples were collected between October 2015 and July 2018 and vegetation monitoring and interviews with local communities were implemented. We recorded a total of 37 species of plants, 23 species of which were determined through traditional knowledge. The most representative species in fecal samples were Rudgea crassiloba, Attalea butyracea, Inga alba and Cecropia peltata. The plants most commonly recognized by local communities were Mauritia flexuosa, A. butyracea, Bellucia grossularioides and I. alba. Our results provide insight into the importance of tapirs in the consumption of large seeds such as M. flexuosa and A. butyracea that are considered of economic relevance for local communities. Incorporating citizen science monitoring allowed us to identify plant species that are taxonomically difficult to distinguish and to evaluate new information related to the natural history of cryptic species such as tapirs. This information is crucial to establish conservation strategies for the lowland tapir in the Orinoquia region of Colombia.

What causes bird-building collision risk? Seasonal dynamics and weather drivers.

Bird-building collisions are a major source of wild bird mortality, with hundreds of millions of fatalities each year in the United States and Canada alone. Here, we use two decades of daily citizen science monitoring to characterize day-to-day variation in building collisions and determine the factors that predict the highest risk times in two North American cities. We use these analyses to evaluate three potential causes of increased collision risk: heightened migration traffic during benign weather, increased navigational and flight errors during inclement weather, and increased errors in response to highly directional sunlight that enhances reflected images. The seasonal phenology of collisions was consistent across sites and years, with daily collision rates approximately twofold higher in autumn as compared to spring. During both migration seasons, collision risk was best predicted by the weather conditions at dawn. In spring, peak collision risk occurs on days with warm temperatures, south winds, and a lack of precipitation at dawn. In autumn, peak collision occurs on days with cool temperatures, north winds, high atmospheric pressure, a lack of precipitation, and clear conditions with high visibility. Based on these results, we hypothesize that collisions are influenced by two main weather-driven mechanisms. First, benign weather at dawn and winds that are favorable for migration cause an increase in migration traffic in both spring and autumn, creating greater opportunity for collisions to occur. Second, for autumnal migrants, cold clear conditions may cause an additional increase in collision risk. We propose that these conditions may be particularly hazardous in autumn because of the high abundance of naïve and diurnal migrants at that time of year. Our analysis also establishes that a relatively small proportion of days (15%) are responsible for 50% of the total collision mortality within a season, highlighting the importance of targeting mitigation strategies to the most hazardous times.

Citizen Science Monitoring of Freshwater Mussels (Unionidae) in the Huron River Watershed, Michigan

Citizen Science Monitoring of Freshwater Mussels (Unionidae) in the Huron River Watershed, Michigan

Underwater Impact and Intention–Behaviour Gap of Scuba Divers on Coral Communities in Hong Kong SAR, China

Recreational diving, under the continual growth of the scuba diving industry, may escalate coral reef damage as one of the substantial anthropogenic impacts and is of pressing concern. Besides unregulated and excessive diving activities, accidental contact with corals by inexperienced divers can cause recurring physical damage and heighten the pressure on coral communities. Understanding the ecological impacts of underwater contact with marine biota will thus be crucial to develop more sustainable scuba diving practices in Hong Kong. To probe the scuba diving impacts of divers' contact with coral communities, WWF-Hong Kong started a citizen science monitoring programme and invited 52 advanced divers to conduct direct underwater observations. Questionnaires were also developed to examine and address the research gap between the associated attitudes and the perceived contact rate of divers. Results from analysing the underwater behaviours of 102 recreational divers showed inconsistent perceived and actual contact rates. It was revealed that recreational divers might often overlook the ecological effects of their activities underwater on coral communities. The questionnaire findings will be utilised to improve the framework of the dive-training programmes and enhance divers' awareness to minimise their influence on the marine environment.