Cisgender Girls Research Articles

Barriers to Youth Disclosing Self-Injurious Thoughts and Behaviors: A Focus on the Therapeutic Context

Objective Disclosure of self-injurious thoughts and behaviors (SITBs) can serve as a catalyst to receiving mental health and lifesaving care; yet, many young people do not disclose these experiences to their therapists. In this study we aimed to identify barriers to adolescents disclosing their SITBs to their therapists and to compare these barriers across non-disclosure of suicidal ideation, suicidal behavior, and non-suicidal self-injury. Method Participants (n = 292) all had lived experience of at least one SITB and were an average age of 15.55 years, with the majority identifying as cisgender girls (68.15%). Using inductive content analysis of open-ended responses, six main categories of disclosure barriers were identified. Results These overarching barriers were: Agency Theft, Irrelevance, Therapeutic (Mis)Alliance, Internalized Stigma, Anticipated Stigma, and Lacking Disclosure Self-Efficacy. The majority (85.29%) of subordinate barriers were common across the three SITBs. Conclusions Adolescents may hesitate to disclose their SITBs to their therapists for many reasons; prioritizing the therapeutic relationship and working collaboratively with adolescents could be instrumental in not only fostering disclosure but also an overall more positive therapeutic experience.

Mental Health during Medical Transition in a US and Canadian Sample of Early Socially Transitioned Transgender Youth

PurposeThis study aimed to shed light on the mental health of a unique group of medically transitioning transgender adolescents: those who had made a binary social transition during childhood and who, in general, had not experienced substantial gender-incongruent puberty. MethodsStudy participants were part of a broader longitudinal study comprising 3 groups: transgender youth, their cisgender siblings, and unrelated cisgender peers. Using multilevel models, we compared self-reported and parent-reported levels of anxiety and depressive symptoms among transgender youth at 3 stages: before youth had begun puberty blockers; after they had begun blockers; and after they had begun hormone therapy. We also compared age-based mental health trajectories in transgender and cisgender youth. ResultsIn this sample of transgender youth who sought and received gender-affirming medical care, participants experienced stable and relatively low levels of psychological distress across stages of medical transition and across time. There was one exception: transgender girls showed increased, followed by decreased, parent-reported depressive symptoms over time. In contrast, cisgender girls showed increases in internalizing symptomatology (with the exception of parent-reported anxiety) as they got older, and cisgender boys showed decreased self-reported anxiety and increased, followed by decreased, parent-reported depressive symptoms. By mid-adolescence, levels of anxiety and depressive symptoms among transgender girls and transgender boys generally fell between those of cisgender girls and cisgender boys. DiscussionResults demonstrate that transgender youth who are socially and medically supported in their gender identity can experience stable and positive mental health throughout the notoriously challenging developmental period of adolescence.

Mental health of Finnish cis- and transgender youth before, during and after the COVID-19 pandemic

Abstract Background Transgender youth report more mental health problems than their cisgender peers, but little is known about their mental health during and after the COVID-19 pandemic. We studied symptoms of anxiety and depression among cis- and transgender youth before, during, and after the pandemic using large nationwide samples. Methods Data from the Finnish School Health Promotion survey from years 2019, 2021 and 2023 (461,249 students in total; mean age 15.7, SD 1.3) were used. Self-reports covered official gender, gender identity, symptoms of anxiety (Generalized Anxiety Disorder Scale-7 ≥10) and depression (Patient Health Questionnaire-2 ≥3). Categories of cisgender boy (officially boy; gender identity boy; N = 214,423), transfeminine youth (officially boy; gender identity girl, both, neither, or it varies; N = 5,069), cisgender girl (officially girl; gender identity girl; N = 224,753), and transmasculine youth (officially girl; gender identity boy, both, neither, or it varies; N = 14,508) were formed. Results In all timepoints, proportion of those with anxiety or depression was higher among transfeminine youth compared with cisgender boys and among transmasculine youth compared with cisgender girls. In all groups anxiety and depression increased significantly from 2019 to 2021 (ORs 1.4-1.8, p < 0.0001), with no significant differences in these changes between cis- and transgender groups. From 2021 to 2023, anxiety (OR 0.91, p = 0.015) and depression (OR 0.77, p < 0.0001) decreased among transmasculine youth but increased among cisgender girls (ORs 1.11 [p < 0.0001] and 1.07 [p < 0.0001], interactions p < 0.0001). Among transfeminine youth, generalized anxiety symptoms decreased from 2021 to 2023, whereas they remained at the level observed in 2021 among cisgender boys (interaction p = 0.0025). Conclusions In Spring 2023, we found still increasing mental health problems among cisgender girls, while among transgender youth the post-pandemic developments were more positive. Key messages • Post-pandemic, we found further increases in mental health symptoms in cisgender youth, while among transgender youth the development seemed more promising. • Transgender youth experience more anxiety and depression than their cisgender peers, thus gender diversity deserves still more attention in educational, social, and health care services.

Quantifying Toxic Friendship: A Preliminary Investigation of a Measure of Victimization in the Friendships of Adolescents.

Although friendship is a key source of support and intimacy for adolescents, adolescent friendships can also involve victimization, which can be harmful to youth well-being. To date, our understanding of victimization in friendship has been limited by a lack of measures that comprehensively capture the variety of negative behaviors occurring in this relationship. This study outlines the development and preliminary validation of the Friendship Victimization Scale for Adolescents (FVS-A), which assesses victimization and controlling behaviors in adolescent friendships. Adolescents (N = 706, Mage = 15.93, SD = 1.67; 62.3% cisgender girls, 33.7% cisgender boys) from high schools in Canada completed the FVS-A and other measures in the fall of 2019. The factor structure and psychometric properties of the measure were examined. The FVS-A demonstrated excellent internal consistency and a 3-factor structure (relational victimization, physical/verbal victimization, controlling behavior). There was evidence for demographic differences such that cisgender girls reported more overall friendship victimization, as well as relational victimization and control, than did cisgender boys. Greater friendship victimization was associated with greater dating victimization and gender-based bullying and was uniquely associated with greater depressive symptoms after accounting for these other types of victimization. Findings suggest that friendship victimization is common among adolescents. The results provide evidence for the utility of the FVS-A as a measure of an understudied source of interpersonal risk. Future work is needed to understand the long-term implications of friendship victimization and to elucidate the temporal associations between friendship victimization and other indicators of psychosocial adjustment.

Examining Relations Between Sexualizing Media Exposure and Sexting Attitudes and Behaviors among U.S. Adolescents.

Based on social cognitive processes (Bandura, 2009), sexualizing media likely provide adolescents with credible role models for their own sexualized self-presentation in other mediated contexts, such as sexting. A survey of 6,093 US adolescents was conducted (Mage = 15.27 years, SD = 1.37; 69.1% cisgender girls; 26.8% cisgender boys, 4.2% gender-minority participants) to examine relations between three types of sexualizing media exposure (reality television, music videos, pornography) and active sexting behaviors (i.e., requesting and sending). Among cisgender boys, exposure to sexually oriented reality television was positively related to active sexting behaviors, but this link was not found for cisgender girls or gender-minority participants. Music video exposure was related to active sexting behaviors only among cisgender boys and pornography consumption was positively related to active sexting behaviors among all gender groups. A positive outcome expectancy (i.e., sexting is fun) consistently mediated these relations. A negative outcome expectancy (i.e., sexting is risky) only mediated the relations between pornography consumption and active sexting behaviors among cisgender girls. Results are discussed in light of social cognitive theory (Bandura, 2009) and the 3AM Model (Wright, 2011).

"It shouldn't be just hush-hush": A qualitative community-based study of menstrual health communication among women in Philadelphia.

Although menstruation is a natural biological process, many people feel embarrassed of their menses and struggle to discuss it. To mitigate menstrual communication stigma, it is necessary to first elucidate communication experiences and perceptions. Thus, we qualitatively explore menstrual communication among cisgender women who menstruate and their family, friends, healthcare providers, and community. In partnership with No More Secrets (NMS), a Philadelphia menstrual health non-profit, we conducted a community-based participatory research (CBPR) project in Fall 2020. Cisgender, menstruating individuals ages 18-45 recruited from NMS' catchment in Philadelphia participated in semi-structured interviews about their menstrual experiences and communication (N = 20). A deductive, theory-driven approached based on the social-ecological model was used to analyze the data. Varying emotional responses arose across social-ecological levels: communication was awkward and simplistic with family; positive and supportive with friends and community members; and uncomfortable and frustrating with healthcare providers. Participants echoed the importance of menstrual communication as a means of sharing information, feeling less alone, and decreasing menstrual stigma. Findings can inform future CBPR workshops that address stigma in familial, healthcare, and community-based discussions to improve menstrual health and experiences for cisgender girls and women, transgender men, and gender non-binary individuals who menstruate.

Sexual Minority Identity and Risky Alcohol Use: the Moderating Role of Aggressive Behavior.

Adolescent alcohol use has significant consequences for concurrent and longitudinal health and wellbeing, with sexual minority youth consistently reporting higher levels of alcohol use than their heterosexual peers. Understanding how individual-difference variables like aggressive behavior are associated with variability in sexual minority adolescents' higher levels of alcohol use offers novel theoretical insight into this vulnerability. The 81,509 participants were drawn from the Profiles of Student life: Attitudes and Behavior Study. They were ages 14-17 years (M = 15.38, SD = 1.09) and 50.1% were cisgender girls. For sexual identity, 88% were heterosexual, 5% were mostly heterosexual, were 4% bisexual, were 1% mostly gay or lesbian, and were 1% being gay or lesbian. Participants reported on alcohol use, aggressive behavior, and sexual identity. Gay/lesbian and mostly gay/lesbian adolescents who reported higher aggressive behavior had higher levels of alcohol use than their heterosexual peers who also reported higher aggressive behavior. The way in which aggressive behavior amplified the link between mostly gay/lesbian and gay/lesbian identities and alcohol use suggests the need for more research examining how this trait may heighten both exposure and reaction to minority stressors among some subgroups of sexual minority youth.

“Stop playing politics with my kid:” Thematic analysis of a trans-exclusionary sports legislation hearing in Texas

Background In recent years, legislation targeting transgender and gender diverse (TGD) people has proliferated in the United States, particularly legislation focused on TGD youth and on athletic inclusion. One such law, Texas House Bill 25 (HB25), focused on prohibiting TGD youth from participating in school sports in Texas. Aims In this study, we identified common themes from the public testimony on Texas HB25 to further understand the arguments and rhetoric used in such legislation. Method We used a modified version of reflexive thematic analysis to examine the content of the HB25 legislative hearing. Results We established four main themes: The Political Smokescreen: Vilifying TGD People and Re-Writing Narratives about Cisgender Girls and Women; Pleading from the Perspectives of Equity and Justice; Appeals to Power: Using Money, Reputation, and Religion; and Provable Harm: Anti-TGD Legislation Leads to Documented Harms. Discussion This hearing and the subsequently passed bill have profound implications for TGD youth in Texas by restricting them from participating in regular activities with their cisgender peers. In addition, many people testified that the very introduction of the bill was harmful because of how dehumanizing it was to have their rights attacked. Analyzing the arguments and rhetoric used in these types of hearings can add to our understanding of anti-trans legislative initiatives.

Adolescent Barriers to Sexual Communication with Their Parents: Differences by Sexual and Gender Identity

ABSTRACT Parent-adolescent sexual communication has important health benefits for adolescents, yet not all families openly communicate about sex. In particular, adolescents often report various barriers to engaging in sexual communication with their parents. The purpose of this study was to address gaps in past research by examining barriers to communication with both mothers and fathers, separately, as well as to explore the unique barriers to communication among queer and trans adolescents. Participants were recruited via Instagram (n = 566; Mage = 16.0; 57.6% cisgender girls; 41.4% heterosexual). The most endorsed barrier to communicating with mothers was the adolescent believing they already knew enough about sexual topics. The most endorsed barrier for communicating with fathers was embarrassment. The least endorsed barriers included mother’s lack of knowledge, and perceptions of anger from fathers when discussing sexuality. Several differences emerged by sexual and gender identity: cisgender girls and trans adolescents tended to agree more with barriers to communication with parents compared to cisgender boys. Additionally, queer adolescents tended to agree more with barriers to communication with parents than their heterosexual peers, although group differences depended on the particular barrier. These findings highlight specific barriers to parent-adolescent sexual communication faced by various groups of youth.

Comparing the Costs and Benefits of Activism for Girls with Different Sexual Orientations and Racial and Ethnic Identities

In recent years, girls and young women have become particularly visible as leaders of activist campaigns and social movements. Drawing on data collected from an ACLU summer program for youth activists and advocates, this study explores the costs and benefits cisgender girls incur as a result of their activism. The findings reveal that although girls report more benefits than costs overall from their activism, the costs are correlated with the number of marginalized identities they hold. Queer Black girls report the greatest overall costs from their activism, and queer Multiracial girls report the highest rates of burnout. Queer White girls report significantly greater overall costs and problems as a result of their activism than heterosexual White girls, more burnout than heterosexual Black girls, and more empowerment than heterosexual Latinas. Informed by intersectionality and the PVEST framework, implications for supporting the sociopolitical action of girls with different social locations are discussed.

An exploratory study of stressors, mental health, insomnia, and pain in cisgender girls, cisgender boys, and transgender and gender diverse (TGD) youth.

Transgender and gender-diverse (TGD) youth experience more stressors and are therefore at a higher risk of health problems compared with their cisgender peers. The aim of this study was to investigate the prevalence of TGD youth in a general population sample and to explore a wide variety of health-related factors. We investigate differences in stressors and health outcomes between TGD youth and cisgender girls and boys and the influence of stressors and demographic factors on health outcome in the whole group. Cross-sectional survey data from a Swedish school-based study were used (N = 3,067, M = 17.8 years). Those who had reported their gender identity as "other" or other than their assigned gender (N = 41) were compared with cisgendered girls (n = 1,544) and boys (n = 1,482). Regression models in the whole group explored if demographics and stressors statistically predicted health outcomes. In comparison with cisgender girls and boys, TGD youth (1.3% of the whole sample) reported a higher prevalence of self-harm and pain problems. Both TGD youth and cisgender girls more frequently reported insomnia, social anxiety, depressive symptoms, pain, and stressors compared with cisgender boys. When only demographic variables were entered, but not when stressors were added to the model, being TGD magnified the odds of depressive symptoms, sub-diagnostic social anxiety, and pain problems. Stressors magnified the odds of reporting health problems for the whole group. TGD youth generally reported more stressors, which negatively influence health outcomes. Results are important for professionals who meet TGD youth.

White matter microstructure in transmasculine and cisgender adolescents: A multiparametric and multivariate study.

Adolescence is a sensitive developmental period for neural sex/gender differentiation. The present study used multiparametric mapping to better characterize adolescent white matter (WM) microstructure. WM microstructure was investigated using diffusion tensor indices (fractional anisotropy; mean, radial, and axial diffusivity [AD]) and quantitative T1 relaxometry (T1) in hormone therapy naïve adolescent cisgender girls, cisgender boys, and transgender boys (i.e., assigned female at birth and diagnosed with gender dysphoria). Diffusion indices were first analyzed for group differences using tract-based spatial statistics, which revealed a group difference in AD. Thus, two multiparametric and multivariate analyses assessed AD in conjunction with T1 relaxation time, and with respect to developmental proxy variables (i.e., age, serum estradiol, pubertal development, sexual attraction) thought to be relevant to adolescent brain development. The multivariate analyses showed a shared pattern between AD and T1 such that higher AD was associated with longer T1, and AD and T1 strongly related to all five developmental variables in cisgender boys (10 significant correlations, r range: 0.21-0.73). There were fewer significant correlations between the brain and developmental variables in cisgender girls (three correlations, r range: -0.54-0.54) and transgender boys (two correlations, r range: -0.59-0.77). Specifically, AD related to direction of sexual attraction (i.e., gynephilia, androphilia) in all groups, and T1 related to estradiol inversely in cisgender boys compared with transgender boys. These brain patterns may be indicative of less myelination and tissue density in cisgender boys, which corroborates other reports of protracted WM development in cisgender boys. Further, these findings highlight the importance of considering developmental trajectory when assessing the subtleties of neural structure associated with variations in sex, gender, and sexual attraction.

Mixed-Method, Multilevel Clustered-Randomized Control Trial for Menstrual Health Disparities

Menstrual cycle characteristics are largely considered unmodifiable reproductive factors, a framing that prevents exploration of the ways structural factors interfere with menstrual health. Given the role of structural factors like healthy food and healthcare access on reproductive health and the grave need for structural interventions to known reproductive health disparities that disproportionately target cisgender women racialized as Black, it is imperative that science begin to examine how structural factors influence menstrual health. To explore such research, we employ critical race theory and intersectionality to illustrate what a structural intervention to improve menstrual cycle health could look like. Centering those with the greatest need, persons racialized as Black and/or LatinX living in food and healthcare deserts in Northern Manhattan, our illustrative sample includes four groups of persons who menstruate (e.g., cisgender girls and women) that are pre-menarche, pre-parous, postpartum, or perimenopausal. We describe a hypothetical, multilevel clustered-randomized control trial (cRCT) that provides psychoeducation on racism-related trauma and free delivered groceries to both treatment and control groups, while randomizing 30 clusters of housing associations to receive either sexual health clinics at their housing association or free vouchers for healthcare. We embed mixed methods (diaries, interviews, surveys, mobile apps, observation) into the design to evaluate the effectiveness of the 1-year intervention, in addition to determining the impact on participants through their perspectives. Through this illustration, we provide a novel example of how structural interventions can apply mixed methods to evaluate effectiveness while delivering services to populations impacted by multiple structural factors. We demonstrate how qualitative and quantitative approaches can be paired in clustered RCTs and how a living logic model can empirically incorporate the population perspective into more effective interventions. Lastly, we reveal how sensitive menstrual health is to structural factors and how upstream improvements will trickle down to potentially reduce health disparities in reproductive health.

Integrating context in the examination of pubertal timing effects on disordered eating among Black and Latinx girls.

Earlier pubertal onset has been associated with increased disordered eating symptoms in cisgender girls. Although this finding has been replicated across studies of disordered eating, most studies have focused on white samples. The lack of studies is surprising given that early pubertal timing may impact disordered eating risk in Black and Latinx girls differently due to trends of earlier pubertal onset in these groups and increased stressors related to interpersonal and structural racism and economic marginalization. Current methods of examining pubertal timing among Black and Latinx girls may also not fully capture their experience. Contextual factors (e.g., neighborhood and school racial/ethnic composition) may influence how minoritized girls both perceive and are affected by their pubertal timing. Moreover, factors such as ethnic-racial identity development and experiences of discrimination may be important mechanisms explaining the association between pubertal timing and disordered eating risk. This paper aims to provide a brief overview of studies examining pubertal timing and disordered eating risk among Black and Latinx girls in the US and to discuss recommendations for future research that integrate contextual factors in the examination of pubertal timing and its effects. PUBLIC SIGNIFICANCE: Early pubertal timing has been associated with increased risk of disordered eating symptoms among cisgender girls; however, studies have been limited due to the use of predominantly white samples. The article provides a brief overview of findings related to pubertal timing effects among Black and Latinx girls, discusses considerations for the measurement of pubertal timing, and highlights the need for inclusion of contextual factors in future research.

The Social Negotiations of “Girls Like Us”: What Text-Messaging Dyadic Interactions Reveal About the Lives of Queer, Lesbian, and Bisexual Girls Living in the United States

While there is emerging literature addressing the gendered nature of digital communication between youth, research about the everyday communications, friendships, and social relations of LGBTQ+ youth remains sparse. This study explores how 14 to 18-year-old, cisgender lesbian, bisexual, and queer girls living in the United States come to understand themselves and others in dyadic text messaging conversations of girls who were previously unknown to each other. Using grounded theory, this secondary data analysis identified the pervasiveness of heteronormative frameworks in participants’ communications with each other. Findings indicate that both digitally-mediated expressions of selfhood and queer identity are dynamic processes significantly shaped by normative discourses and participants’ desire to connect. Drawing on and contributing to girlhood and youth studies, this research provides insight into how queer cisgender girls construct literacies of self, sexuality, and gender, and establish connection, and how they resist heteronormativity to validate their own and each other’s sexual identities.

Sexual Diversity Bullying and Cyberbullying Questionnaires: An Inclusive Approach to Measure Sexuality-Based Bullying

ABSTRACT LGBTQ+ bullying is a specific type of stigma-based bullying with a high prevalence among LGBTQ+ people. However, instruments to assess this phenomenon are scarce and focus on homophobic aggressions, and the motivations therefor, mainly in relation to gay and lesbian youths. In this study, we introduce and validate an instrument to assess LGBTQ+ bullying. The instrument covers general and specific aggressions, as well as dimensions of sexuality besides sexual orientation such as gender identity and expression, as a more comprehensive approach to understand the phenomenon. The study included 2,552 adolescents (MAge = 14.54, SD = 1.76) from 13 Andalusian public secondary schools. Regarding gender identity, 43.9% of participants were cisgender boys, 53.5% were cisgender girls, and 2.6% were trans-binary and non-binary gender youths. In terms of sexual orientation, 81.1% of participants were heterosexual students, 2.4% lesbian/gay, 11.2% bisexual/pansexual, 4.4% questioning, and 0.9% asexual. Second-order models for bullying and cyberbullying had a good fit. Moreover, invariance was seen for bullying [ΔCFI = -.003] and cyberbullying [ΔCFI = .003] victimization measures. Furthermore, there was a sexual diversity bias: cisgender heterosexual students were more likely to perpetrate LGBTQ+ aggressions, and LGBTQ+ students were more likely to be targets of general and specific aggressions.

Interventional Effects Analysis of Dating Violence and Sexual Assault Victimization in LGBTQ + Adolescents: Quantifying the Roles of Inequities in School and Family Factors.

Lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender/nonbinary, and queer (LGBTQ +) adolescents experience considerable disparities in dating violence and sexual assault victimization relative to heterosexual and cisgender peers. These disparities may be driven in part by the disruptive effects of heterosexism and cissexism on school-based and family relationships. To quantify the potential roles of these processes and identify priorities for prevention efforts, we estimated the extent to which dating violence and sexual assault victimization in LGBTQ + adolescents could be reduced by eliminating sexual orientation and gender modality inequities in school adult support, bullying victimization, and family adversity. We analyzed data from a cross-sectional, population-based survey of high school students in Dane County, Wisconsin (N = 15,467; 13% sexual minority; 4% transgender/nonbinary; 72% White) using interventional effects analysis, adjusting for grade, race/ethnicity, and family financial status. We found that eliminating inequities in bullying victimization and family adversity could significantly reduce dating violence and sexual assault victimization in LGBTQ + adolescents, particularly sexual minority cisgender girls and transgender/nonbinary adolescents. For instance, eliminating gender modality inequities in family adversity could reduce sexual assault victimization in transgender/nonbinary adolescents by 2.4 percentage points, representing 27% of the existing sexual assault victimization disparity between transgender/nonbinary and cisgender adolescents (P < 0.001). Results suggest that dating violence and sexual assault victimization in LGBTQ + adolescents could be meaningfully reduced by policies and practices addressing anti-LGBTQ + bullying as well as heterosexism- and cissexism-related stress in LGBTQ + adolescents' families.

Cortical Structure Differences in Relation to Age, Sexual Attractions, and Gender Dysphoria in Adolescents: An Examination of Mean Diffusivity and T1 Relaxation Time.

Recent research found that the combination of masculine gender identity and gynephilia was associated with cortical T1 relaxation time, which is considered to reflect gray matter density. We hypothesized that mean diffusivity (MD), a diffusion tensor imaging metric that reflects the degree to which water movement is free versus constrained, in combination with T1 relaxation time would provide further insight regarding cortical tissue characteristics. MD and T1 relaxation time were measured in 76 cortical regions in 15 adolescents assigned female at birth who experience gender dysphoria (GD AFAB) and were not receiving hormone therapy, 17 cisgender girls, and 14 cisgender boys (ages 12-17 years). Sexual orientation was represented by the degree of androphilia-gynephilia and the strength of sexual attraction. In multivariate analyses, cortical T1 relaxation time showed a weak but statistically significant positive association with MD across the cortex, suggesting that macromolecule-rich cortical tissue also tends to show water movement that is somewhat more constrained. In further multivariate analyses, in several left frontal, parietal, and temporal regions, the combination of shorter T1 relaxation time and faster MD was associated with older age and greater gynephilia in GD AFAB individuals and cisgender boys and with stronger attractions in cisgender boys only. Thus, for these cortical regions in these groups, older age, gynephilia, and stronger attractions (cisgender boys only) were associated with macromolecule-rich tissue in which water movement was freer-a pattern that some prior research suggests is associated with greater cell density and size. Overall, this study indicates that investigating T1 relaxation time and MD together can further inform how cortical gray matter tissue characteristics relate to age and psychosexuality.

Evaluating the Moderating Effect of Gender on Adolescents’ Internalizing Symptoms Throughout the First Wave of COVID-19

In 2020, COVID-19 began to affect adolescents’ mental health, particularly cisgender girls and transgender/gender diverse (TGD) adolescents, who previously experienced a greater risk for depression and anxiety disorders than their peers. The present study investigated the moderating effect of gender on internalizing symptoms among three community samples of adolescents ( N = 5,487; Mage= 14.7, SD = 1.4) throughout the first wave of COVID-19 (pre-pandemic, mid-first wave, and post-first wave). Rates of internalizing symptoms were highest for TGD adolescents at all timepoints, followed by cisgender girls, who were significantly higher than cisgender boys. Gender moderated the effect of time on internalizing symptoms. Specifically, internalizing symptoms increased only for cisgender girls. These results suggest that during widescale disasters, intervention should focus on those with previous vulnerabilities to mental health symptoms such as cisgender girls and TGD adolescents.

Gendered Differences in Experiences of Bullying and Mental Health Among Transgender and Cisgender Youth

Even though previous studies have shown that transgender youth have poorer mental health and more experiences of being bullied than their cisgender counterparts, and that bullying associates with poorer mental health, knowledge on such associations in different gender identity groups is scarce. This study investigated how mental health problems and experiences of being bullied appear across different gender identity groups, and how bullying is associated with mental health among the groups in question. Data from the Finnish School Health Promotion 2021 study (n = 152,880, mean age 16.2 years (standard deviation 1.22)) was used and categorized into four gender identity groups: cisgender girls (n = 76,521), cisgender boys (n = 69,735), transfeminine youth (n = 1317), and transmasculine youth (n = 5307). Transgender youth experienced more bullying and reported poorer mental health than cisgender youth. While transfeminine youth faced the most bullying, transmasculine youth had the most mental health symptoms. In each group, bullying associated with poorer mental health. Compared to cisgender boys without bullying experiences, odds of poorer mental health were dozens-fold among transmasculine youth with weekly bullying experiences. In addition, compared to cisgender boys with bullying experiences, odds of poorer mental health were greater among all other gender identity groups with bullying experiences, and among transmasculine youth in particular (e.g., odds ratio of generalized anxiety = 8.36 (95% confidence interval, 6.59–10.6)). Bullying is associated with poorer mental health in all youth, but transgender youth, and especially transmasculine youth, may be in an even more vulnerable position for its implications. This suggests that there is a need for improving effective measures to decrease bullying in schools and to improve wellbeing of transgender youth.