Cinematographic Film Research Articles

Biological diversity detected in two deteriorated Cuban cinematographic films that contribute to their biodegrading

The cinematographic films are a reproduced version of reality and have become vital documents to study everything around us. For their preservation it is necessary to study the biodeterioration of these documents. The aims of this study were to characterize the biodeterioration caused mainly by microorganisms in two cinematographic films by applying molecular methodologies, electron microscopy and epifluorescence microscopy as well as to determine the enzymatic characterization of the fungal species isolated. From the Cuban Institute for Cinematographic Industry and Arts (ICAIC) the samples on two damaged cinematographic films were collected. The films were analyzed by different microscopic techniques, including the two types of electron microscopy. Also, the degradative potential of the isolated fungi was determined by qualitative evaluation of the enzymatic activities. A significant fungal colonization on both sides of the films and the damages caused by these microorganisms in the material were observed as well as the exoskeletons of dust mites of the families Tydeidae and Tarsonemidae as part of biofouling that were used as nutrients by the fungi. By epifluorescence microscopy was observed that some of the microorganisms were still viable and active. Using molecular biology techniques could be identified several species corresponding to the fungal genera Aspergillus, Cladosporium, Penicillium and Microascus as well as the bacteria genera Bacillus, Staphylococcus and Kocuria, which were responsible of the biodeterioration of these films. All isolated fungal species were capable to degrade the cellulose and gelatin as well as to excrete organic acids and pigments. Bacteria were detected in low concentrations as well as other biological agents, but it was observed that the films were being colonized by a high concentration of various fungal species with a significant biodeteriogenic potential, demonstrating that they were severely affecting the films.

Desolvation Inability of Solid Hydrates, an Alternative Expression for the Gibbs Free Energy of Solvation, and the Myth of Freeze-Drying.

The term "desolvation inability" is proposed in order to describe the alteration of the original chemical structure of a solute ("decomposition") prior to the solvent's full removal upon the heating of the solvate. This behavior has been sporadically reported; however, it is much more frequent, and it is the basis of various, seemingly unrelated, effects/processes, e.g., the vinegar syndrome of cellulose acetate cinematographic films, in thermal energy storage. An explanation and a criterion/index for the prediction of this behavior are provided based on the comparison of the Gibbs free energies of decomposition and desolvation. A new approach for the expression of the Gibbs free energy of desolvation is proposed by reversing the roles of the solute and solvent and by regarding water as the solute rather than as the solvent, while the solute is treated as a solid solvent. This approach results in lower solvation/desolvation Gibbs free energy values. Based on the above, the experimentally observed thermal behavior of three inorganic hydrates is predicted and explained. Theoretically and experimentally, it is supported that decomposition is possible at sub-zero (°C) temperatures and the regarded simultaneous drying and protection of heat-sensitive substances by freeze-drying, at least in some cases, e.g., for the case of gallic acid, is an unverified myth.

Influence of Disinfection Methods on Cinematographic Film.

Microbiological contamination of cinematographic films can cause damage and loss of image information. A large part of the films is made with the base of cellulose triacetate, which has been used from the 1940s until today. Cellulose triacetate is relatively resistant to common organic solvents, but some types of microorganisms can contribute to its faster degradation. In this work, we tested four types of disinfectants suitable for mass disinfection and sufficiently effective against various types of microorganisms. Butanol vapours, a commercial mixture of alcohols (Bacillol® AF), Septonex® (an aqueous solution of [1-(ethoxycarbonyl)pentadecyl] trimethylammonium bromide) and ethylene oxide applied as a gas mixed with carbon dioxide were tested. Samples of a commercial film made of cellulose triacetate were disinfected. The samples were aged for 56 days at 70 °C and 55% RH. Changes in optical, mechanical and chemical properties were studied. None of the disinfectants affected the change in the degree of substitution. For samples disinfected with Bacillol® AF (alcohol mixture), part of the plasticiser (triphenyl phosphate) was extracted and the intrinsic viscosity of the cellulose triacetate solution was reduced after ageing. A slight decrease in intrinsic viscosity also occurred after disinfection with ethylene oxide. Compared to the non-disinfected samples, butanol vapours and Septonex® appear to be the most gentle disinfectants for the cellulose triacetate film base, within the studied parameters.

A non-invasive diagnostic tool for cellulose acetate films using a portable miniaturized near infrared spectrometer

This article tests the suitability of a new method to monitor the degree of substitution of cellulose acetate films, by employing a compact and inexpensive near-infrared miniaturized spectrometer (908.1–1676.2 nm) that can be easily applied in situ. The present study compares the analytical performance of the proposed method against conventional diagnostic strategies based on benchtop micro-attenuated total reflectance Fourier transform Infrared (μATR -FTIR) measurements in the mid-infrared spectral range.The novel calibration function exploits the shifts in the first overtone of the hydroxyl stretching 2νOH band of probe materials and was created using a set of analytical standards with different degrees of substitution. The robustness of the method was assessed by application on a group of sixteen historical cinematographic films. The accurate condition assessment of these films was performed in situ, in a non-invasive manner. The proposed analytical procedure is quick and easy-to-implement, and therefore it constitutes a rapid method to guide conservation strategies regarding film storage and digitalization in cultural institutions, including museums and cinematheques. Potential applications on three-dimensional objects and industrial processes are possible.

FiRe 2 : An Online Database for Photographic and Cinematographic Film Technical Data

Among the great variety of our Cultural Heritage, photographic and cinematographic materials are fundamental and direct witnesses of the past. As often happens when dealing with materials of cultural interest, even photographic and cinematographic films can undergo severe deterioration, aging, and color fading throughout the time, leading to the need for proper restoration, conservation, and preservation of these materials. In this context, even though the digitization process is becoming more and more essential, analyzing and studying the analog materials remains fundamental to perform a retrieval or a correction faithful to the original material. For this reason, the lack of technical information (especially for the oldest materials) and the absence of open source archives of the producing companies underlines the actual and concrete need for a database of physical, chemical, and sensitometric data of both cinematography and photographic films. The aim of this work is the creation and the promotion of FiRe 2 , a big and unique database of cinematographic and photographic materials to support the work of conservators, restorers, and researchers, as the availability of information and the cooperation between institutions and professionals are essential for preserving our Cultural Heritage.

‘The highest salary ever paid to a human being’: Creating a Database of Film Costs from the Bank of England Archive

Following the Cinematograph Films Act 1938, the Bank of England produced a ledger of film production costs, itemising British films produced between April 1938 and November 1939. This article will demonstrate how this ledger, and the subsequent database I have created based on it, can be of benefit to researchers of British film history. The detailed database contains the estimated final costs of 170 British films, including The Citadel, The Drum, The Lady Vanishes, Pygmalion, Sixty Glorious Years, A Yank at Oxford, Jamaica Inn and The Mikado with an accurate breakdown of costs for particular categories. The database can show researchers the impact of American investment in British film production, as well as details of the salaries of the highest paid stars and directors of British films made during this period.

Pictures of Poverty: The Works of George R. Sims and Their Screen Adaptations by Lydia Jakobs

Reviewed by: Pictures of Poverty: The Works of George R. Sims and Their Screen Adaptations by Lydia Jakobs John Plunkett (bio) Lydia Jakobs, Pictures of Poverty: The Works of George R. Sims and Their Screen Adaptations (New Barnet: John Libbey, 2021), pp. ix + 266, $39/ £34.66 paperback. Was there any creative endeavour that George R. Sims did not turn his hand to? A well-known journalist, comic writer, dramatist, and poet, as well as social critic and observer of London poverty and urban life, Sims was everywhere in the late-Victorian literary world. Sims was more than a prolific polymath though. As Lydia Jakobs's book makes clear, his work was fostered by a cultural landscape that encouraged crossovers between the worlds of literature, journalism, illustration, theatre, and public performance, whether in the form of penny readings, magic lantern shows, or early film. Jakobs's book joins a growing number of publications to flesh out the multifarious and extended lives enjoyed by individual texts and narratives in this profoundly intermedial world. Pictures of Poverty particularly focuses on mapping the way Sims's ballads and social exposés were remediated into lantern slide sets and film narratives. The magic lantern was at the height of its popularity in the period from 1880 to 1920, with hundreds of thousands of slides of every imaginable scientific, educational, and amusing subject, from travelogues and temperance [End Page 464] tales to illustrated hymns and adaptations of popular fiction. After 1896, audiences could also experience the cinematograph; the blossoming British film industry often sought to adapt and draw on popular narratives that were already well-known to the public. For both the lantern and early film, which coexisted happily across these decades, Sims's ballads were prime material for transferring into pictorial narratives. There were many such adaptations. Thirty-two of Sims's texts were adapted for the magic lantern, twenty-four of which are from the Dagonet Ballads (1881). Sims, according to magic lantern experts Joss Marsh and David Francis, was the most popular living writer for lantern adaptations. Jakobs's book takes us from Sims's most famous ballad, "In the Workhouse: Christmas Day," first published in 1877, to a film adaptation of the same ballad by G. D. Samuelson in 1914. Sims's own work was often a rich mix of the visual and textual. This was particularly true of his volumes on London and its underclass, which were illustrated by many photographs and illustrations. Jakobs is interested in Sims's work as an observer and reformer, evident in series such as How the Poor Live (1883) and Living London: Its Work and Its Play, Its Humour and Its Pathos, Its Sights and Its Scenes (1901–3). Jakobs's chosen title is Pictures of Poverty, and the book accordingly devotes as much time to discourses around Victorian poverty and its broader pictorial depictions, including those by Sims, as to the remediation of his work. This reviewer, however, found Sims's engagement with the lantern and cinematograph much more absorbing; it was fascinating to discover Sims's relationship with early film. He gave his name and approval to a film version of Living London produced by Charles Urban in 1904, which widely toured across England in 1905. In 1908, Sims was commissioned by the Gaumont-British Picture Corporation to write an adaptation of one of his short stories, "Lady Letmere's Jewellery" (1903); he also collaborated with Gaumont in 1909, credited as a script writer on "The Martyrdom of Adolf Beck." Sims's involvement in film was part of the narrative and social expansion of the burgeoning film industry, a drive to give the upstart medium an imprimatur of respectability through the involvement of well-known literary figures. In 1908, the Era praised Gaumont for "co-operating with Mr Geo. R Sims in the production of a high-class series of authorised cinematograph films" (104). Between 1914 and 1923, there were fifteen film adaptations of plays by Sims and his contributors. Jakobs's book is at its illuminating best when she focuses on three case studies to demonstrate the multiple remediations of Sims's work: How the Poor Live, "In the Workhouse: Christmas...

Deep eutectic solvents: green solvents for the removal of degraded gelatin on cellulose nitrate cinematographic films

Cellulose nitrate (CN) has been used in the past as support for photographic negatives and cinematographic films. This material is particularly unstable and can undergoes severe degradation due to thermal, photocatalytic and hydrolytic loss of nitro groups from the lateral chain. Thus, to prevent the disappearance of the movies, their scanning and digitalization become a priority.However, CN bases degradation may prevent the scanning of the films. The decrease in pH, for instance, lowers the viscosity of gelatin, which becomes softer. This causes the formation of gelatin residues which stick on the back of the superimposed frames inside the reels creating a deposit.Traditional approaches to clean gelatin residues from the surface of CN bases include the mechanical removal with scalpels and the use of organic solvents (such as isopropyl alcohol). However, these methods are either slow and ineffective or could potentially damage the degraded CN supports.To overcome these drawbacks, we have evaluated the performance of three choline chloride and betaine-based Deep Eutectic Solvent (DES) formulations as alternative for the removal of gelatine residues from CN supports. These solvents are inexpensive (when compared to traditional solvents), easy to prepare, green (non volatile, safe towards the operators and the environment, and potentially recyclable), non flammable and have been previously proposed for the extraction of proteinaceous materials, but their use for the restoration of photographic negatives or cinematographic films has not been reported yet.Selected areas over the frames of a real deteriorated CN cinematographic film were cleaned comparing the DES performances with the ones obtained using isopropyl alcohol as an example of a traditional method.In particular, the tested DES formulations showed superior cleaning power compared to isopropyl alcohol and, at the selected application times, resulted capable to remove the gelatin residues without affecting the CN film supports.Graphical abstract

High-Sensitivity Metal Oxide Sensors Duplex for On-the-Field Detection of Acetic Acid Arising from the Degradation of Cellulose Acetate-Based Cinematographic and Photographic Films

In this work, a system consisting of two resistive sensors working in tandem to detect and quantify the acetic acid released during the degradation of cellulose acetate-based ancient cinematographic and photographic films is presented. Acetic acid must be constantly monitored to prevent reaching concentrations at which autocatalytic degradation processes begin. The sensors are constituted by a thin layer of metal oxide (tungsten oxide and tin oxide) deposited over an interdigitated electrode capable of being heated, chosen to maximize the array response towards acetic acid vapors. The signals obtained from the sensor array are mathematically processed to reduce the background signal due to interferent gases produced during degradation of ancient cinematographic films. The sensor array reported a LOD of 30 ppb for acetic acid, with a linearity range up to 30 ppm. Finally, the sensor array was tested with different cinematographic and photographic film samples made of cellulose acetate, whose degradation state and acetic acid production was validated using the conventional technique (A-D strips). The presented array is suitable for remote monitoring large number of films in collections since, compared to the official technique, it has a lower detection limit (30 ppb vs. 500 ppb) and is much quicker in providing accurate acetic acid concentration in the film boxes (15 min vs. 24 h).

Ownership and Transfer of ‘Musical Work’ and ‘Sound Recording’– A Case for Service Tax

In the music industry, lyricists and composers enter into contracts with the cinematograph film producers for the incorporation of their work into cinematograph films. However, the ownership of such copyrighted works is dependent on the nature of the contract entered into between the parties and may lead to implications under the service tax regime. The Madras High Court is currently deciding the veracity of the order passed by the Commissioner of Goods & Services Tax and Central Excise, holding A.R. Rahman liable for paying service tax on the alleged services rendered by him. This paper analyses the nature of contracts that individuals like A.R. Rahman might enter into with the producers of the cinematograph film producers from the lens of the Indian Copyright Act, 1957 and thereafter discusses the possible implications of such contracts from the prism of the service tax regime.

Factors Influencing the Fungal Diversity on Audio-Visual Materials.

The biodeterioration of audio–visual materials is a huge problem, as it can cause incalculable losses. To preserve these cultural heritage objects for future generations, it is necessary to determine the main agents of biodeterioration. This study focuses on identifying fungi, both from the air and smears from photographs and cinematographic films that differ in the type of carrier and binder, using high-throughput sequencing approaches. The alpha diversity measures of communities present on all types of carriers were compared, and a significant difference between cellulose acetate and baryta paper was observed. Next, the locality, type of carrier, and audio–visual material seem to affect the structure of fungal communities. Additionally, a link between the occurrence of the most abundant classes and species on audio–visual materials and air contamination in the archives was proven. In both cases, the most abundant classes were Agariomycetes, Dothideomycetes, and Eurotiomycetes, and approximately half of the 50 most abundant species detected on the audio–visual materials and in the air were identical.

Novel\ufeff markers to early detect degradation on cellulose nitrate-based heritage at the submicrometer level using synchrotron UV\u2013VIS multispectral luminescence

Cellulose nitrate (CN) is an intrinsically unstable material that puts at risk the preservation of a great variety of objects in heritage collections, also posing threats to human health. For this reason, a detailed investigation of its degradation mechanisms is necessary to develop sustainable conservation strategies. To investigate novel probes of degradation, we implemented deep UV photoluminescence micro spectral-imaging, for the first time, to characterize a corpus of historical systems composed of cellulose nitrate. The analysis of cinematographic films and everyday objects dated from the nineteenth c./early twentieth c. (Perlov's collection), as well as of photo-aged CN and celluloid references allowed the identification of novel markers that correlate with different stages of CN degradation in artworks, providing insight into the role played by plasticizers, fillers, and other additives in stability. By comparison with photoaged references of CN and celluloid (70% CN and 30% camphor), it was possible to correlate camphor concentration with a higher rate of degradation of the cinematographic films. Furthermore, the present study investigates, at the sub-microscale, materials heterogeneity that correlates to the artworks' history, associating the different emission profiles of zinc oxide to specific color formulations used in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.

COMBINATIVENESS OF FRAME COMPOSITION IN THE CURRENT SCREEN SPACE FORMATIONS

VENESS OF FRAME COMPOSITION IN THE CURRENT SCREEN SPACE FORMATIONS Summary: The article examines the variability of non-standard frame composition, the displacement and interaction of visual objects, everything that is characteristic and specific to the structure of the screen space. The author focuses attention on the location of objects within the frame, which is experiencing a new actualisation, expressed, only at first glance, in an incorrectly built on-screen construct, when the composition of the frame implies, in some cases, the construction of an image with a change in its essential components. Artist I.Repin’s artworks, on which the faces of the portrayed - R.Levitsky (1878) and P.Samoilov (1915), are depicted closer to the edge of the frame, are presented as illustrative material in this work. Attention is focused on similar features of the embodiment of characters’ images in films (Arrhythmia, directed by B.Khlebnikov, 2017, Russia; The White Crow, directed by R.Fiennes, 2019, UK, France, Serbia), and in the programs of national television. Thus, the phenomenon of non-standard screen composition and the reasons for the increased use of this approach by camera operators when shaping a frame in modern media were considered using examples of paintings, cinematographic films, television materials. As a methodological basis, both theoretical and empirical, general scientific and special methods were used, which made it possible to clarify the properties of the compositional structure of the screen space as a diverse expressive form presenting audiovisual content to the viewer. The research was based on the Photocomposition theoretical course by L.Dyko and A.Golovni, as well as the scientific positions of L.Kuleshov, a director and theorist of cinema. At the same time, the content of the work was primarily determined by the experience of professional activity and the practical participation of the author in the creation of various screen products, including the ones based on which the analysis and theoretical substantiation of the practical necessity of the methods, actively used today in the creation of various screen compositions during the filming process and post-production, were made. The publication will attract the attention of specialists and be of interest to a wide range of readers and viewers since the problem of the combinatorial composition of the frame remains a significant issue in the construction of screen space in the field of television, cinema and the Internet resources.

Biodegradable hot melt adhesive based on partially saponified polyvinyl acetate/cellulose diacetate blend

AbstractRecycling the polymer material from the waste has a great advantage in reducing the cost of the biodegradable hot melt adhesive and solving environmental problems. Cellulose diacetate obtained from the acid hydrolysis of discarded cellulose triacetate‐based cinematographic films was blended with low molecular weight partially saponified polyvinyl acetate. The degree of substitution of cellulose diacetate and the degree of saponification of partially saponified polyvinyl acetate to obtain the binary blends having excellent compatibility were determined by FTIR and DSC. TGA showed that these blends have sufficient thermal stability for hot melt adhesive applications. The viscoelastic properties of the blends were evaluated by DMA and melt viscosity. The shear strength and the biodegradability of the final hot melt adhesive were examined according to the amount of cellulose diacetate in the blends. The results indicate that adding 20% of cellulose diacetate can reduce the cost of partially saponified polyvinyl acetate ‐based hot melt adhesive while improving the adhesive strength.

Overview of fungal isolates on heritage collections of photographic materials and their biological potency

Despite controlled relative humidity in archives and private collections, fungi are a widespread cause of biodeterioration of cinematographic films and historic photographs, which represent a significant cultural and historic loss to society. Photographic emulsions and coatings are organic and hygroscopic in nature and represent a good and easily accessible source of nutrients. Because archives hold whole stacks of these materials, they subsequently contain more fungi in comparison to other enclosed spaces. This in turn generates a need for a systematic microbiological evaluation of fungi isolated from photographic documents in order to pinpoint the potentially biodeteriorative fungal species and increase awareness and control readiness when these species are encountered. With this aim, we have decided to collect data regarding fungal isolates and their biological potency from the following originating materials: gelatin cellulose triacetate or cellulose nitrate films, albumen or gelatin paper photographs, cellulose nitrate negative films, gelatin glass plate negatives and positive paper prints. In addition, the most efficient biotic degraders of gelatin binder are presented and the degradation of cellulose based supports as well as the occurring microbial interactions and the impact of inhibitory silver salts are reviewed. Lastly, based on the origins of fungal contamination and the occurrence of fungi related to allergenic and toxicogenic diseases, prevention and control measures are suggested.

Gamma and electron beam irradiation effects for conservation treatment of cellulose triacetate photographic and cinematographic films

Photographic and cinematographic films of cellulose triacetate safeguarded in historical and cultural institutions are often contaminated by fungi when stored in inadequate conditions of humidity and temperature. The presence of fungi affects the image contained in the films, accelerates the process of biodeterioration and represents a risk to the health of people working with contaminated materials. In addition, another common physicochemical degradation affecting cellulose triacetate films causing deacetylation of polymer chain is called “vinegar syndrome”. Considering the dose interval established for the disinfection of cultural heritage materials, in this work the effects of irradiation with gamma rays and electron beam on photographic and cinematographic films of cellulose triacetate were evaluated. Additionally, the thermal stability behavior of the films and the feasibility of crosslinking of CTA films were investigated. Film samples were selected and characterized by FTIR-ATR spectroscopy. Irradiated samples by gamma rays and electron beam with radiation absorbed doses between 6 kGy and 200 kGy were examined by FEGSEM microscopy, UV–Vis spectrophotometry and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). The results showed that disinfection by gamma and electron beam irradiation, in the dose range of 6 kGy–10 kGy, does not change or modification of main properties of the constitutive materials of photographic and cinematographic films. The applied dose of 50 kGy, both gamma rays and electron beam, indicated a crosslinking effect on the films and can be considered a possibility for the treatment of films affected by the “vinegar syndrome”.

A new miniaturised short-wave infrared (SWIR) spectrometer for on-site cultural heritage investigations

The paper reports on the development of an analytical method based on the use of a new miniaturised short-wave infrared (SWIR) spectrometer for the analysis of cultural heritage samples. The spectrometer is a prototype characterised by small dimension (45.0 mm in diameter x 47.5 mm in height x 60 g weight), easily handled and transferable out of research laboratories. The prototype enables the acquisition of spectra in the SWIR range of 1200–2200 nm, which is a unique feature for miniaturised spectrometers. The exploitation of this spectral range allows the detection of a high number of combination and overtone bands, which guarantees significant diagnostic power to the instrument. The present study lays a significant foundation to the development of analytical strategies based on miniaturised NIR spectrometers working in the SWIR spectral range for the characterization of complex samples such as cultural heritage specimens. Analytical performances of the new spectrometer were assessed on archaeological bones, cinematographic films and bronze patinas. The selected cases of study present challenging conservation issues not properly addressed, and their analyses usually require to be performed on-site, in places not easily accessible by restorers, archaeologists and/or scientists. The data acquired with the prototype, combined with a multivariate data analysis approach, show the possibility to i) differentiate between the materials used as a support for cinematographic film namely cellulose nitrate (CN), cellulose acetates (CA) and polyethylene terephthalate (PET); ii) sort out archaeological bone fragments according to their collagen content as an initial screening test for bones characterization; iii) differentiate between corrosion products on outdoor bronze sculpture, which is important for assessing the state of conservation of the artwork. The prototype enabled rapid information acquisition to guide restoration strategies, which need to be supported in real time by quick and easy analytical procedures.

Lessons in Protecting and Enforcing Copyright in Screenplays in Nigeria

On 2 May 2019, the Lagos Division of the Federal High Court in Nigeria delivered its judgment in Suit No. FHC/L/ CS/740/2017 Raconteur Productions Limited v. Dioni Visions Entertainment Limited and Others (‘Raconteur’). This was a claim for copyright infringement of a screenplay, and concerned what constituted sufficient proof of an alleged infringer’s access to such screenplay and evidence of substantial similarities under Nigeria’s Copyright Act. The plaintiff did not produce physical or documentary evidence of its screenplay alleged to have been infringed. For this reason, the Court dismissed the plaintiff’s claims and held that there was no basis to consider the questions of whether the plaintiff had copyright in any screenplay; whether the defendant had access to the plaintiff’s screenplay; and whether there were substantial similarities between the plaintiff’s work and that of the defendant. This article explores the practical implications and lessons from this case for copyright law and practice, both for legal practitioners and the film industry, especially in the digital era. It finds that the decision in Raconteur and the circumstances of the case provide pointers for screenwriters seeking to procure remuneration and copyright protection; receive credit or attribution as well as funding for the co-production of cinematograph films, embodying their screenplays as distinct, protected works. It argues for a nuanced adoption of applicable lessons from various jurisdictions such as South Africa, the UK and the US. copyright infringement, screenplay, Nigeria, substantial similarities, film industry, protected works

‘Dead as the wooden battleship’: The Fate of Silent British Features in the Transition to Sound

Dead as the wooden battleship, dead as the magic lantern: such were the similes used in 1929 by some in the British film industry to describe the fate of silent cinema in the new talkie era. Other voices predicted a lingering half-life. Either way, most film companies faced a common problem: what to do in 1929 with their stock of silent films which were completed but unreleased. Foregrounding the activities of British International Pictures, Gainsborough Pictures and the distributors Equity British, this article explores the aesthetic, practical and technical problems in exhibiting and sonically titivating silent product as the industry adjusted to sound technology. Topics include the problems generated by the Cinematograph Films Act 1927; the damage caused by awkwardly dubbed voices; the perils of management divisions; the re-release of older silent films; audience and critical dissatisfaction; and the output of young film-makers such as John F. Argyle, who made his last silent feature, The Final Reckoning, in September 1931. British silent cinema's death, it turns out, was neither quick nor painless.

Balancing the Interest of Copyright Holder – A Case Analysis of Delhi University’s Photocopy Case

Indian copyright law is at parity with the international standards as contained in TRIPS. The (Indian) Copyright Act, 1957, pursuant to the amendments in 1999, 2002 and 2012, fully reflects the Berne Convention for Protection of Literary and Artistic Works, 1886 and the Universal Copyrights Convention, to which India is a party. India is also a party to the Geneva Convention for the Protection of Rights of Producers of Phonograms and is an active member of the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) and United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). Work protected in India,Under the Copyright Act, 1957 the term includes an artistic work comprising of a painting, a sculpture, a drawing (including a diagram, a map, a chart or plan), an engraving, a photograph, a work of architecture or artistic craftsmanship, dramatic work, literary work (including computer programmes, tables, compilations and computer databases), musical work (including music as well as graphical notations), sound recording and cinematographic film.