Church Fathers Research Articles

Religion Against Violence: Insights of Contemporary Philosophy and Eastern Patristics

This article examines the concepts of violence and religion as social phenomena of modernity. Religion and the church are presented not as specific organizations or denominations, but as important social institutions and are reflected in philosophical and anthropological terms. I carry out the idea that religion as a modern social institute in cooperation with other social communities can resist violence, especially its aggressive forms. Based on some philosophical theories, the causes of the emergence of the different forms of social violence, as well as definitions of violence, are explored. In this context, the article presents the ideas of Hanna Arendt, Carl von Clausewitz, Bertrand de Jouvenel, James Mill, and Max Weber. Special attention is paid to the conception of the mimetic origin of aggression and violence in “primitive” or “archaic religions” elaborated by the French philosopher René Girard. He compares the social roots of aggression and violence in these religions with the Biblical ones and prefers the latter for their potential in preventing and overcoming the imitation types of violence. Girard’s anthropological justification of the mentioned historical religious traditions is presented. A significant part of the paper is devoted to the views of the Eastern Church Fathers of Early Christianity, considered in the concurrence of their humanistic ideas with those of noted contemporary philosophers. I see meaningful ideas for preventing extreme forms of violence and aggression in the contemporary world in the doctrines of the Early Eastern and Byzantine Fathers, especially those of the classical patristic period. In this regard, this article presents the anthropological and humanistic teachings of Athanasius the Great, Gregory of Nazianzus, Maximus the Confessor, and John of Damascus. The Early Church Fathers’ ideas are analyzed from a philosophical point of view, as having rational and anthropological grounds which are relevant for the present day’s human existence.

APOLOGETIKA IRENEUS KEPADA KAUM BIDAT YANG MEMPERTENTANGKAN KEILAHIAN YESUS

Topics about the Trinity, Christology, as well as topics about heretics are always debatable topics. It's not only happening at the present time but has also started since the first centuries, during the time of the church fathers. Irenaeus is a Christian figure who is known as the father of the church, also at the time when he was dealing with the teachings of Gnosticism, and how was Irenaeus’ view in dealing with Gnosticism as well as explaining Christology. This article is a descriptive description of Irenaeus' Christology as a contrast to the development of Gnostic Christology in the second century AD, so the method used is descriptive qualitative. The purpose of this article is so that Christians can understand Christology correctly. This article is not only meant to be a historical depiction, but also to show its continuity with the post-Enlightenment Christological dynamics as proposed by William Bousset who attempted to place Paul's Christology in the context of Gnosticism.

The Method of Scriptural Interpretation according to Origen

The practice of interpreting Scripture by the Church Fathers has become a precious legacy and has significantly contributed to the development of current methods of interpreting Scripture. One of the figures in this context is Origen. This paper explores Origen’s method of scriptural interpretation through observation of his homily on the figure and story of Rahab (Jos 2:1–24) contained in his Homilies on Joshua. The research method used is a literature study. Based on the analysis of his homily on Rahab, it was found that Origen intensely used allegory as a method to convey profound spiritual meaning in interpreting Scripture. In addition, he also combined allegorical with other methods such as typological, Scriptura scripturae interpres, Christological, and ecclesiological. The findings can make significant contributions for Christians today. First, by interpreting the physical violence in the story of Rahab as ‘spiritual violence’, Christians are invited to counteract and prevent the misuse of violent texts in Scripture as motivation and justification for committing wrongdoing. Secondly, by placing Rahab as a symbol of divine love and mercy, Origen shows that all people can belong to the family of God through faith in Jesus, repentance, and good deeds.

Defending a Legacy: Heinrich Bullinger’s Preface to Zwingli’s Opus articulorum (1535)

This article presents the first English translation of Heinrich Bullinger’s preface to Huldrych Zwingli’s Opus articulorum of 1535. This source, which has received little attention in previous scholarship; is placed in the context of efforts to bring Luther and the Swiss Reformed closer together after the death of the Zurich Reformed on the question of the Lord’s Supper. Bullinger’s preface is an apologetic manifesto in favor of Zwingli’s orthodoxy and continuity with the Church Fathers. It is argued that Bullinger’s strong commitment should be interpreted as a signal sent to Wittenberg that a rapprochement with Luther was not to be achieved at the expense of Zwingli’s theological legacy.

Պատկերամարտական շարժման սկզբնավորումն ու վարդապետական արձագանքը․ Վրթանես Քերթող և Հովհան Մայրագոմեցի

The iconoclastic movement in Armenia is an interesting phenomenon, which precedes the Byzantine controversies in the 8th century. Two important testimonies have been preserved in the Armenian ecclesiastical literature about the iconoclastic groups and movements in Armenia and Aghvank’ in the 6th–7th centuries: Vrt῾anes K῾ert῾oł’s treatise “Against the Iconoclasts” and the letter written by Hovhan Mayragomec῾i to Bishop David, which is included in the “History of Aghvank” by Movses Dasxowranc῾i, 10th century historian. These two complementary documents outline the origins of the iconoclastic movements in Armenia and Aghvank’, the reasons for its emergence, the geographical span and name of the movement’s authors showing the religious and theological attitude of the Armenian Church regarding the issue. The treatise of Vrt῾anes is the earliest datable defense of images in any language. The author proves necessity and importance of the icons in the churches on the basis of biblical and patristic sources, provides insightful information about the iconography and frescos of the Armenian churches in general. He cites St. John Chrysostom, Bishop Severian of Gabala, Eusebius of Caesarea and St. Gregory the Illuminator, the patron saint of the Armenian nation. Vrt῾anes is the first author to use the story of Abgar’s icon of Christ in Edessa in defense of icon use. Analyzing and studying the Armenian sources of the first stage of the iconographic movement, we come to the following conclusion: the presence of images in the church doesn’t contradict to the Holy Scriptures and the teaching of Church Fathers. We have to remember that the worship of images in Christianity has nothing to do with the idolatry described in the Old Testament, because icons were also in the Holy of Holies and in the Temple of Solomon.

Women’s participation in Gnostic societies

The role of women in the ancient church community was quite high. Church fathers and apostles regularly mention women as laborers, patrons, and probably heads of congregations. At the same time, in polemical literature against heresies, one can regularly find reports that heretics, by whom the teachers of Gnosis are most often meant, also actively employ female representatives for certain purposes. With regard to Gnostic communities, however, assessments of women’s participation in certain activities are always negative. In this article a comparative analysis of the role of women in proto-orthodox Christian communities and Gnostic schools is carried out. Based on the sources, the author concludes that women’s participation in the proto-orthodox community and Gnostic schools, at least in the first two centuries of the birth of Christianity, resulted in a similar role in them, although there were some differences in the degree and scope of women’s involvement in religious life and cultic practice, as well as the functions they performed.

Uma «nova teologia» para um tempo novo

Luther was, fundamentally, a theologian, but a theologian for a new time.He is, probably, one of the first fruits of the «new theology» heralded by Lorenzo Valla, founded on the Scriptures and the Church Fathers, both anti-scholastic and anti-speculative. Like others in Alcalá, Paris, Salamanca, or Louvain, hedesired a «positive» and pastorally relevant theology. Luther, moreover, championed an existential theology that impacted the believer’s daily life. This perspective was driven by his discovery, during years of teaching the Pauline letters, of the true meaning of justification by faith! He found in this theological theme the core of the Christian proclamation. Subsequently, he engaged in a struggle against the «theology of glory» (scholastic and speculative theology), to emphasize the true theology revealed by God, the «theology of the cross». He was not interested in an abstract God (the God absconditus), but in the God who communicates and relates with man. That is, the pro me of Lutheran soteriology.

인간의 ‘자유의지’에 대한 오리게네스의 견해

The purpose of this study is to examine Origen’s thoughts on the subject of human free will. Origen has described the topic of free will separately in his 『Peri Archon』, but it is not easy to systematically understand the theory because it contains a mixture of biblical commentary, theology, and philosophy. In addition, just as many church fathers of the 2nd and 3rd centuries focused on guarding against heresy and Gnosticism, Origen also wrote his works with the purpose of refuting them, and for this reason, it is difficult to independently understand his theory of free will. Accordingly, chapters 2 and 3 of this thesis compare the claims of the Gnostics identified by Origen with the author's own theory. Rejecting the fatalism and natural determinism of the ancients, Origen generally emphasized the importance of free will and also mentioned reason as the basis for free will and the ethical responsibility of action. Chapter 4 attempts to understand free will in its relationship with divine providence. Origen believed that free will and God's providence is not in conflict, but is compatible, and he further spoke of their dynamism, in which God's providence helps and embraces human will, allowing humans to use their free will better. Lastly, through Origen's insight into divine foreknowledge, we understand that free will does not conflict with foreknowledge and can be harmonized within providence.

Canon Lists of Church Fathers in Early Christianity

Abstract This article examines how the names of “church fathers” were compiled into lists from the end of the fourth century to the middle of the sixth century. Although not as common as biblical canon lists, these lists of church fathers attempt to vest ecclesiastical authority in the figures listed. Surveying Greek and Latin Christian literature, it finds that there are two overarching strategies for listing church fathers: (1) linking individual fathers’ authority to their involvement in authoritative church councils; (2) compiling lists of names that are meant to be representative of the church’s antiquity and catholicity.

「부활에 대한 논고」(NHC 1,4)의 ‘육신의 부활’ 개념

The New Testament apocryphal “Treatise on the Resurrection”(NHC 1,4) shows a cross-section of the resurrection debates witnessed by the second-century Church. This treatise is unique and special in that it discusses both spiritual and bodily resurrection. However, the resurrection of the flesh that this Treatise speaks of is different from the resurrection of the material flesh spoken of by the Church Fathers. They emphasize the continuity of the resurrected flesh with the earthly flesh, highlighting the materiality of the resurrected flesh. In this Treatise, the materiality of the resurrected flesh is completely denied. It says that the resurrected flesh is not an earthly body, but a spiritual body. This is implied by the statement that the spiritual resurrection swallows up both the psychic and the physical element, or both the psychic resurrection and the physical resurrection; the psychic and physical elements are now swallowed up and dissolved by the spiritual resurrection. That the resurrection of the flesh of which this Treatise speaks is not a resurrection of the material flesh becomes clearer when compared to the second-century Fathers and Epistula Apostolorum. In conclusion, while this Treatise does assert the resurrection of the flesh, it is not the same as the resurrection spoken of by the Church Fathers. The resurrection of the flesh in this Treatise is not the resurrection of the material flesh, but the resurrection of the spiritual flesh. It means that the material flesh is not necessary for a resurrected being. Therefore, the resurrection of the flesh in this Treatise can actually be said to be a spiritual resurrection. By including the “flesh” in the resurrection in some way, it seems that the author of this Treatise was trying to distance himself from other Gnostics who excluded the flesh from the resurrection altogether.

구약성경에 나타난 부활 - 시편을 중심으로

This article explores the theme of resurrection in the Old Testament. Since it is already established that there is no evident testimony of the resurrection in the Old Testament except in the Books of Daniel and 2 Maccabees, I just summarize the existing interpretations of these texts. In addition, I observe that some texts such as Hos 6:2, Isa 26:19, Ez 37:1-14, Job 19:25-27, which do not explicitly mention the theme of resurrection, are interpreted with reference to it in the New Testament and in the patristic teachings. I also consider the possibility of interpreting the immortality in the Book of Wisdom in connection with the corporal resurrection. In the case of the Psalms, some texts are interpreted in connection with the resurrection, but the Hebrew texts have no explicit reference to this theme. I examine the possible references to the resurrection in Psalms 1, 16, 49, 73, and 149. These psalms explore the prospects of the future in different contexts, such as the problem of retribution not realized in this life, the prosperity of the wicked, the inevitability of death, and the final judgment, and begin to conceive of hope beyond death. The hope for the resurrection in these texts is not evident, but they approach the hope beyond death. A certain eschatological hope begins to emerge. The Septuagint, the New Testament, and the interpretations of the Church Fathers also read the hope for the resurrection in these psalms. While the hope for the resurrection emerged gradually in the Old and New Testaments, the Psalms constituted moments in which the hope germinated. In later years commentators with more developed beliefs in the resurrection reinterpreted these psalms from their own perspective.

MOTIVES OF “HUMILITY” AND “SPIRITUAL JOURNEY” IN THE ESSAY SERIES BY B.K. ZAITSEVA “ATHOS”

The article examines the interaction of the motives of “humility” and “spiritual journey” in the book by B.K. Zaitsev “Athos”. Their cycle-forming function is shown. The features of the artistic implementation of these motifs are revealed. The system of images used by the writer to represent the motives of “humility” and “spiritual journey” is reconstructed. It is proved that the poetics of these motifs is formed from many elements and includes impressionism in the depiction of pictures of nature, the use of symbols of Medieval literature, quoting lines from Holy Scripture and the writings of the Church Fathers. The work also traces the genetic connection of the motifs of “humility” and “spiritual journeying” with the ancient genre of walking. Particular attention is paid to identifying the value guidelines that determine the philosophical concept of the cycle. It is concluded that the motifs under consideration are further developed in the essay cycle “Valaam” and the tetralogy “Gleb’s Journey”.

Toward a Theology of Compassionate Release: Orthodox Christianity and the Dilemma of Assisted Dying. Confronting End-of-Life Realities with Faith and Compassion

This article examines the subtle interconnection between the sanctity of life and individual autonomy within the context of assisted dying, as seen through the lens of Orthodox Christianity. It seeks to unravel the complex theological, ethical, and pastoral considerations that inform the Orthodox stance on end-of-life issues, particularly the nuanced understanding of suffering, death, and the redemptive potential encapsulated within them. Orthodox theology, with its profound veneration for life as a divine gift, offers a counter-narrative to contemporary discourses that often prioritize personal autonomy and the alleviation of suffering above all. This tradition emphasizes the transformative power of suffering when united with Christ’s own redemptive suffering, proposing a vision of end-of-life care that is rooted in compassion, dignity, and hope for resurrection. The exploration begins with a historical and theological examination of the Orthodox perspective on life’s sanctity, engaging with the teachings of Church Fathers and contemporary theological and bioethical discussions. It highlights the foundational concepts of Orthodox anthropology, which perceives human beings as an indivisible unity of body and soul, reflecting the imago Dei. This anthropological understanding challenges reductionist views of human existence and informs the Orthodox approach to medical ethics, palliative care, and the spiritual accompaniment of the dying. By critically evaluating arguments for and against assisted dying, the article presents a balanced discourse that respects the depth of individual suffering while upholding the intrinsic value of life. It argues that Orthodox Christianity, through its rich theological heritage and pastoral practice, provides a compassionate and ethically nuanced framework for navigating the moral complexities of assisted dying. This framework advocates for an end-of-life care that honors the fullness of the human person, supports the spiritual journey toward eternal life, and fosters a communal embrace of life’s sacred threshold, offering a dignified passage that aligns with the faith’s deepest convictions about human destiny and divine grace.

Fractured Orthodoxy

The Russian World (Russkii Mir) theology is at the heart of the invasion of Ukraine, and is fueling the ongoing war with apocalyptic rhetoric. Specifically, the Patriarch Kirill (Gundiaev), Patriarch of Moscow and all Rus’ and Primate of the Russian Orthodox Church, has declared the “special military operation” in Ukraine to be a Holy War, and sees the Russian Federation as the prophesied one restraining the reign of the Antichrist (2 Thessalonians 6–7). The West, and its permissive culture of secularist governments, religious pluralism, reproductive freedom, and acceptance of LGBTQIA+ persons, is seen as literally satanic – that is, as heralding the coming of the Antichrist from the Book of Revelation. This article traces the evolution of this aberrant theology, as well as the geopolitical contexts in which it has evolved. The article concludes with a counternarrative coming from the Orthodox Church Father, Saint Irenaeus of Lyon (☦︎ 202 CE). It is hoped that a “Return to the Fathers” in theological worldview will, in turn, help Russian Orthodoxy to return to sanity, and away from its dangerous apocalyptic rhetoric.

Sejarah, Struktur dan Teologi Doa Syukur Agung Ketiga Tata Perayaan Ekaristi 2020

This article is entitled "History, Structure and Theology of the Third Eucharistic Prayer for the 2020 Eucharistic Celebration: Pastoral Vision Management and Leadership." This article aims to provide a deeper understanding of the development, structure and theological significance of the third Eucharistic Prayer in the 2020 Eucharistic Celebration. This paper focuses on selecting the Third Eucharistic Prayer as the main study, based on the idea of the Liturgy as the source and pinnacle of Church life as described in the Sacrosanctum Concilium (SC) n. 10. Liturgy is not only a formal ritual of worship, but also the core of the identity and mission of the Catholic Church which drives and gives meaning to all ecclesiastical activities. Thus, this paper tries to explain the inspirations originating from liturgical texts, especially DSA III, which can be applied in the pastoral work of the Catholic Church. This paper aims to create bridge between liturgical theology and its application in a concrete pastoral context. By exploring the meaning of DSA III, we can find inspiration that can help direct the Vision Management and Pastoral Leadership of the Catholic Church. Indeed, the inspiration for the Vision Management and Pastoral Leadership of the Catholic Church can be found in various sources, including the Holy Bible and the teachings of the Church Fathers, but this paper is a simple effort that tries to highlight the potential contained in DSA III, a prayer that is very often used in celebration of the Eucharist on Sunday by the faithful. In this research it was found that DSA III contains some key values that can be applied in management and pastoral leadership within a parish. Thus, DSA is also a series of prayers which are intended to be prayed and absorbed together by the priest and the congregation. More than that, DSA is not limited to a series of prayers that stop at the Eucharistic liturgy. DSA is also lived out in daily activities, especially when people gather together at church to be involved in church services.

Reading the Church Fathers with St. Thomas Aquinas: Historical and Systematical Perspectives ed. by Piotr Roszak and Jörgen Vijgen (review)

Reading the Church Fathers with St. Thomas Aquinas: Historical and Systematical Perspectives ed. by Piotr Roszak and Jörgen Vijgen (review)

Recent research on the so-called Life of Joseph also known as In pulcherrimum Ioseph

In pulcherrimum Ioseph (IpJ), a retelling of the life of “the most beautiful Joseph,” appears among the Greek writings of the Syriac Church Father Ephraem and is preserved in at least seven languages: Greek, Latin, Coptic, Armenian, Arabic, Slavonic, and Georgian. Most scholars agree that The Life of Joseph/In pulcherrimum Ioseph was neither written by Ephraem nor in Syriac but was originally written in Greek. Some find, however, a substantial overlap with the Syriac Joseph traditions. A Greek papyrus from the sixth to seventh century provides the earliest material evidence. Beyond the first 120 lines of the Joseph-Christ typology, the retelling of the Joseph story contains no unambiguous Christian features. This article argues that the text is likely a composition of three different parts. After introducing IpJ and its characteristics, I present an overview of manuscripts and editions to illustrate its extraordinary popularity and several Sitz im Leben of this particular Joseph story. Finally, I will return to the question of provenance and place this specific retelling of Gen 37–46 within Jewish and Christian debates on the biblical Joseph.

African Latin in Early Modern Thought: Language, Race, and Philology

This article takes John Milton’s description of the “knotty Africanisms” of the Church Fathers as the launching point for an investigation of African Latin in early modern thought. The first part traces the development of a conception of Africitas or Africanismus as a peculiarly African form of Latin in Western scholarship from Erasmus to the early eighteenth century. The second part considers early modern African Latinists such as the Granada professor Juan Latino and the Jamaican poet Francis Williams and their reception in this light. The concept of Africitas is shown to have taken hold at the same time as the globalization of Latin.

Evolution, Evil, Co-Creation and the Value of the World

This article builds on and supplements an earlier one in this journal about theodicy. It focuses on species extinctions and on the possible role of humanity as fallible co-creators. Christopher Southgate has suggested that co-creators might shoulder the task of curtailing extinctions. In appraising this view, I distinguish between extinctions resulting from evolution, which humans have limited power to reverse, but which are held to be indispensable for the evolution of complexity, consciousness and self-consciousness, and those caused by humanity itself, which humans should reduce, even if they cannot be halted. Human creativity, however, extends further to the development of skills, trades, the arts and literature. Church Fathers, such as Ambrose, Theodoret and Cosmas Indicopleustes, held that God left the creation incomplete so that humanity could enhance it; certainly, human creativity has introduced agriculture, navigation, technology and culture, adding to the value of the world. Granted belief in creation, this can be understood as co-creation. Granted the value that humanity continues to add to the world, the belief that such creativity flows from the creator’s overall plan emerges as a coherent one.

Plato’s Shadow: The Encroaching Doctrine of the Soul’s Immortality in the Early Church

The influence of Plato’s concept of the soul as innately immortal and indestructible had a profoundly unbiblical influence upon many of the early church fathers’ views regarding human nature, the final judgment of the wicked, and God’s gift of immortality to believers. I will argue my thesis by initially defining the nature of the soul according to the Hebrew Bible and the Christian New Testament, with an emphasis on its mortality. I will primarily utilize Scripture itself, although secondary sources—such as commentaries on the Hebrew and Greek versions—are essential due to interpretational differences. This will help to demonstrate how the Biblical view differs significantly from the Platonic view. Likewise, I will explore the Platonic view of the nature of the soul through the use of various primary and secondary sources. Additionally, I will use the writings of many early church fathers to highlight various instances in which the early church adopted the Platonic view of the soul and applied it to areas of their theology. Lastly, I will use both primary and secondary sources to make the case that the adoption of Platonic doctrine on the immortal soul has had an ‘unbiblical’ influence on how many Christians have viewed human nature, which alters the views of the final judgment of the wicked as well as the concept of God’s gift of immortality to believers in Christ. Ultimately, I will argue that this issue is important because it affects how we see the character of God and is, therefore, related to how we worship him.