Chronology Of Building Research Articles

Reconstructing the fallen arch of Notre-Dame. New insights into Gothic vault-building

During the fire in April 2019, part of the central vaulting of the nave of Notre-Dame de Paris collapsed beneath the impact of the fallen spire. The blocks composing the transverse arch were decontaminated, then subjected to archeological examination prior to attempting to dry-mount them (i.e., without mortar) on the ground. The purpose was to collect as much information as possible about the arch itself (its state of conservation, geometry, fashioning of the blocks, assembly, etc.), to consider the possibility of putting the fallen stones back in their original places, and more broadly to improve knowledge about mediaeval cathedral vaulting.This article describes the method used during this mounting, which took place in winter 2020/21. Five criteria of differing kind and importance guided decisions on where to place the voussoirs, which way round to position them, and which to associate with which. Three were taken into consideration from the outset, with the interpretation of two of these changing over time: the non-standardized dimension of the voussoirs (their thickness), the presence of a cross mark on one of the joint faces, and the presence of rectangular notches on the extrados of the blocks for housing the end of a centering system for constructing the vault compartments. Two other criteria were incorporated as work progressed, pertaining to the order in which the blocks were collected after the fire, and the geological facies of the stones, thus introducing the idea of degree of confidence.By the end of this operation, only four blocks had been placed with certainty. Nevertheless, the criteria thereby defined and their weighting have been used as a starting point for other investigation methods. In terms of archaeology, the observations carried out on this arch in these exceptional conditions suggest we should reconsider the dating of the nave vaulting, while throwing light more broadly on the relative chronology of building works on this landmark monument of Gothic architecture.

Assessment Methodology for Conservation Planning of Concrete Buildings: Ocean Swimming Pool (1960–2021) by Álvaro Siza in Portugal

ABSTRACT The paper intends to provide a building assessment methodology for the conservation planning of concrete buildings, presenting the demonstrative case-study of the Ocean Swimming Pool (design 1960–1966; conservation 2018–2021) conceived by the Pritzker Prize Álvaro Siza, in Portugal. The building is a landmark of 20th century architecture in the national and international context, being listed as National Monument and included in the World Heritage Tentative List. The article will focus particularly on the building assessment methodology, supported by the cross-analysis of the ‘documentary evidence’ and ‘physical evidence’, allowing for an integrated approach for conservation planning. The paper includes documentation on the building chronology and construction, as well as on the inspection and diagnosis using both non-destructive and minor destructive testing. Moreover, the article presents a pilot demonstration of concrete repair supported on the building knowledge and diagnosis. This real case study shows the advantages of integrating conservation criteria and methods used for traditional buildings to modern heritage in concrete (going beyond the common visible patch repair), in which there are still few case-studies illustrating good practices. This holistic approach has also contributed to the development of detailed policies for risk assessment, concrete conservation and maintenance in the framework of the Conservation Plan.

Ancient restorations: computer-based structural approach for the identification and reinterpretation of the Medracen’s constructive sequence

This paper addresses the importance of a structural approach for identifying and interpreting building chronology, as well as for the establishment of historical stratigraphy. Through structural analyses, carried out on the oldest extant royal mausoleum in North Africa, the Medracen (4th-3rd century BC), located in eastern Algeria, it has been possible to identify building sequences and structural characteristics; a reinterpretation of its constructive sequence within a specific historical context was also suggested. A static linear Finite Element Method (FEM) analysis was performed on a simplified 3D model conceived with solid elements to assess the structural behaviour of the structure under the effect of its self-weight and to identify, consequently, its construction sequence. The equilibrium approach was effective in identifying the structure’s geometry. Results show that Medracen’s ancient restoration was a strengthening intervention strategy and had a symbolic aim related to the function of the funerary building. Restoration works, consisting of repairing specific parts of the building and adding an external cladding, as a whole architectural entity, contributed to reducing the effect of tensile stress, therefore, stabilizing the inner core. Besides, this same action was a means for the Numidian elite to transform an ancient monumental burial (sepulchrum) into a monument (monumentum) with cultural significance likely to convey socio-political messages relating to power and sovereignty. Therefore, we can speak of an “evolutionary restoration” that reflects the ambitions of the Numidian elite to become part of the Mediterranean orbit.

Alexandria, Kom el-Dikka, season 2021

Excavations of the central part of the Kom el-Dikka archaeological site in Alexandria have reached early Roman levels and the current investigations of the PCMA UW expedition are focused on completing the excavation of some of the partly uncovered architecture. The southwestern part of House FA was explored, uncovering two fragments of colourful mosaic floors. Building chronology was established based on finds from two deep stratigraphic probes dug inside the structure. The main phases of occupation of House FA turned out to be comprised in a period between the 1st and 3rd centuries CE. The archaeological part of the program was accompanied by current preservation and maintenance work that the team is tasked with in different parts of the site; necessary preservation projects were undertaken this year in the theatre, the portico in front of the theatre and the early Roman buildings in the central part of the site. The mosaics on display in the mosaic shelter have also undergone cyclical conservation treatment.

Two Half-Dugouts from Excavations on Berezan Island in 2020

The main results of a study of two semi-dugouts found during the excavations of a residential block to the west of temenos of Berezan settlement in 2020 are analyzed in the paper. Special attention is paid to the description of the layout and construction features of the complexes, and the analysis of the remains of material culture from their filling. The chronology of buildings and their relationship with the evolution of the architectural character of archaic Borysthenes are determined.
 Both half-dugouts are found in the courtyard area of one of the blocks of Berezan settlement dated to the third quarter of the 6th century BCE and, despite the earlier creation, they fully correspond to the spatial orientation of the constructions of this block and the entire street network of this area. Stratigraphic and planigraphic observations, as well as a detailed analysis of the ceramic complex from the filling of half-dugouts, allow us to link their origin with the arrival in Borysthenes of the ‘second’ wave of colonists around 540 BCE, for whom they served as temporary constructions until construction of permanent dwellings. However, in contrast to most similar complexes, the described half-dugouts continued to exist next to ground-based constructions and for a long time (probably until the end of the 6th century BCE) were apparently used as utility rooms.

Thermoluminescence Analysis of Bricks from the so-called Arch of Ali Shah

The application of Thermally (TL) and Optically (OSL) Stimulated Luminescence on bricks used as building material can answer questions regarding the chronology of historical buildings. The remarkable historical reports of the “largest ever made brick vault” known as the Arch of Ali Shah (14th century) invoke the image of a gigantic structure adjoining the u-shaped brick monument in Tabriz. However, there is new scientific data that has led us to consider an alternate hypothesis regarding this monument that contradicts the traditional views of scholars. The attribution of this controversial building to Ali Shah, the great vizier of the Ilkhanid court, has long been considered an historical fact by scholars. To better understand the evolution of this unique structure, thermoluminescence (TL) was used to propose a relative dating for its construction. Surprisingly, the results yielded dates of 512±20, 514±27 and 517±21 AD (TL age, equaling 17th century), indicating that the u-shaped structure was built some 200 years after the Ilkhanid era. These dates, supplemented with historical context and architectural evidence, leads to the conclusion that it was used as a separate building before being integrated into the older building, thereby converting the entire complex into a formidable fortification. The remains of the so called Arch of Ali Shah are clearly of a later date, characterizing a completely different architectural style than those of the Ilkhanid period.

Marine reservoir corrections for the Caribbean demonstrate high intra- and inter-island variability in local reservoir offsets

The abundance of marine mollusks found in Pre-Columbian archaeological sites in the Caribbean has made them enticing sample types for radiocarbon dating. Unfortunately, a paucity of local marine reservoir corrections (ΔR) for most of the region limits building chronologies using marine-based carbonates. Here we present a suite of 33 new ΔR values for 22 islands in both the Greater and Lesser Antilles derived from known-age shells pre-dating A.D. 1950 (i.e., pre-atomic testing) and is the first intensive radiocarbon dating effort in the region to examine ΔR effects. The spatial coverage and corrections presented here demonstrate wide variation within and between islands across the Antilles, Bahamian archipelago, and islands that skirt the coast of northern South America. Correction values range from 282 ± 24 yr in Grenada to −547 ± 36 yr in Anegada. Calibration of published radiocarbon dates on archaeological marine shell using these new ΔR values demonstrates the need for caution when dating marine shell in the Caribbean, but illustrates the potential for these corrections to provide more accurate radiocarbon chronologies. Research is now focused on identifying the causal mechanisms behind the high variability in Caribbean ΔR and the implications these data have for refining radiocarbon sequences in the region, particularly for islands where there are currently no ΔR values.

Maslow’s model of needs: application to Cunard and White Star marketing communications between 1900 and the 1950s

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to analyse Cunard’s marketing communications during a period of significant social and economic change. The intention is to show, firstly, how the company sought to meet and influence potential passengers’ understanding of their travel needs and, secondly, how these would be met.Design/methodology/approachThe companies’ marketing communications are analysed using Maslow’s hierarchy. This is a well known descriptor of human needs.FindingsBeyond a description and review of Cunard’s advertising, Maslow’s model of needs is shown to provide a rationale to the company’s approach. In particular, it gives an understanding of the continued, though changing, use of images of the ship to meet the needs of different cohorts of passengers. It shows how carefully constructed images in both word and picture assuaged passengers’ concerns over social needs and how the company promised to meet the highest needs, whether that be for the holiday maker or the emigrant.Research limitations/implicationsDuring much of the period under discussion, much of the advertising design work was done in house. Though none of these files have survived, other sources of information (for example, house magazines and internal correspondence) provide an understanding of Cunard’s attitude to its customers and the business opportunities it saw in a changing market. Where specific dates for documents are not available, a chronology of ship building and use has been applied.Practical implicationsThis paper shows how a well-established model can be used in a different way, adding to the understanding of a company adapting to changing social and economic conditions.Originality/valueTo the best of author’s knowledge, this is the first time that Maslow’s hierarchy has been used explicitly as a tool to analyse marketing and advertising material. Though the existing literature includes some discussion of shipping line posters visual content, there is little further discussion of their content or purpose in a changing social context. This paper provides a more structured analytical view.

Dendrochronology and archival texts: Dating the Ottoman fortress of Seddülbahir on the Gallipoli Peninsula, Turkey*

This paper provides the results of the dendrochronological analyses of seven wood samples from the Ottoman fortress of Seddülbahir on the Gallipoli Peninsula or Turkey. It concludes that the trees were cut in the late spring of 1656. The data collected allows the first building phase of the fortress to be securely dated. By bringing together the dendrochronological results with various archival records about the fortress, a more precise building chronology for the fortress can be reconstructed. The probable initial period of construction was between 1656 and 1661.

Transporting false doors at the construction site of the Temple of Hatshepsut at Deir el-Bahari

The article presents a probable way of transporting false doors to their location within the Temple of Hatshepsut during its construction. The issue does not seem to be of particular significance until one considers the value of the false doors as such and the impossibility of using heavy equipment in the chapels of the Complex of the Royal Mortuary Cult. The false doors had to be introduced into the construction site at the time that the walls of the chapel were being raised but before the building of the vaults. The options discussed in the article illustrate the logistical problems of the undertaking and the construction opportunities that might have been taken advantage of. The discussion provides a closer look at the construction processes taking place in the Temple of Hatshepsut during the separate stages of expansion and the changes in its functional and spatial design. In consequence, it reopens the debate on the building chronology of the temple.

Mortar OSL and brick TL dating: The case study of the UNESCO world heritage site of Modena

Abstract In this study, TL and OSL dating were applied respectively to bricks and mortars taken from a few key structures of the UNESCO World Heritage Site of Modena (northern Italy). The samples came from the Cathedral and the Ghirlandina Tower, built between the end of the XII century and the first half of the XIV century AD. TL dating of bricks showed that we were dealing with the well-known phenomenon of re-use of ancient Roman bricks. However, it was also possible to discover and date quite precisely a previously unknown renovation phase in the Cathedral apse area (XVI century). Regarding the OSL mortar dating, both Multi-Grain and Single Grain techniques were applied on quartz grains, possibly well bleached during mortar preparation. OSL gave good results for one sample from the Cathedral and three from the Ghirlandina Tower. The other gave ages much older than expected, indicating the possible uncompleted bleaching of the quartz grains as the main problem of this dating application. Finally, the application of the Bayesian statistical approach, reducing the error associated with the data, supported a new building chronology, in particular for the Ghirlandina Tower.

Arts of the Medieval Cathedrals: Studies on Architecture, Stained Glass and Sculpture in Honor of Anne Prache ed. by Kathleen Nolan, Dany Sandron

Reviewed by: Arts of the Medieval Cathedrals: Studies on Architecture, Stained Glass and Sculpture in Honor of Anne Prache ed. by Kathleen Nolan, Dany Sandron Alice Isabella Sullivan Nolan, Kathleen, and Dany Sandron, eds, Arts of the Medieval Cathedrals: Studies on Architecture, Stained Glass and Sculpture in Honor of Anne Prache (AVISTA Studies in the History of Medieval Technology, Science and Art, 9), Farnham, Ashgate, 2015; hardback; pp. 314; 31 colour plates, 126 b/w illustrations; R.R.P. £70.00; ISBN 9781472440556. This collection of thirteen essays centred on Gothic art and architecture stems from the sessions organized by the Association Villard de Honnecourt for the Interdisciplinary Study of Technology, Science and Art (AVISTA) at the 2010 International Congress on Medieval Studies at Western Michigan University. The proceedings of these sessions, along with invited contributions, form the present volume honouring the life and scholarly work of Anne Prache, and highlight recent scholarship on the design, decoration, and functions of Gothic buildings. The essays are divided into three categories: architecture; stained glass; and sculpture; and are preceded by a foreword from the editors, a preface on Prache's work and methodological approaches to the study of medieval art and architecture, and an introduction to the volume. The contributions in each part begin with an essay on Reims Cathedral that complement Prache's work and her 1991 volume on the celebrated cathedral at Reims. Prache's husband, Gérard P. Prache, offers the afterword to the volume. The essays cover a wide range of topics related to the architecture of specific buildings, their sculptural and stained glass programs, as well as issues centred on patronage, workshop practices, style, iconography, and chronology. A number of the contributions emphasize the importance of the historical and archaeological evidence to the examination of Gothic architecture, as well as the application of new technologies to the design of medieval buildings. Other essays integrate the study of architecture, sculpture, and stained glass in efforts to understand Gothic buildings through 'artistic integration'. [End Page 188] In the first article in the section on 'Architecture', Walter Berry re-examines the building chronology of Reims Cathedral based on excavation data from the 1990s. Michael T. Davis explores the urban environment of Paris by scrutinizing a document of Guillebert de Mets's fifteenth-century description of the city with a focus on the cathedral, the royal palace, and the new mansion of Jacques Duchie. The last two architectural essays—by Ellen M. Shortell on the analysis of the choir of Saint-Quentin, and by Nancy Wu on the designs of smaller Gothic doorways—look at new technologies and the application of geometry to the study of Gothic buildings. In the second part on 'Stained Glass', Sylvie Balcon-Berry returns to Reims Cathedral and examines its stained-glass windows with a particular focus on those destroyed during the 1918 bombardment, which she investigates through surviving drawings. Turning to Saint-Denis, Michael W. Cothren attempts to reconstruct the stained-glass cycle of the Infancy of Christ in Abbot Suger's famous choir. Claudine Lautier's study centres on the western rose window showing the Last Judgment from Chartres Cathedral, and Philippe Lorentz's essay examines the Annunciation window of Bourges Cathedral. Turning to 'Sculpture', William W. Clark contextualizes the exterior sculptural program of the radiating chapels at Reims Cathedral, and considers the motivations of the patrons relative to the choice of imagery in the figural sculptures. In examining the elaborate central portal sculptures of Bourges Cathedral, Fabienne Joubert discusses thirteenth-century mason workshop practices with a focus on the conception and execution of figural sculpture programs. Charles T. Little looks at a small limestone head from the collection of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, and situates the object in the thirteenth-century dismantled choir screen at Chartres Cathedral. Kathleen Nolan and Susan Leibacher Ward study the narrative and symbolic meanings of the statue-columns of the collegiate church of Notre-Dame-en-Vaux. In considering the findings of a 2011 archaeological project at Lyon Cathedral, Nicolas Reveyron investigates in the final essay the iconography and style of the fourteenth-century façade sculptures of the cathedral. The individual essays are beautifully written and...

Metrología y modulación en las mezquitas: propuesta de análisis a través de cuatro casos cordobeses

En este artículo proponemos un acercamiento a la estructura y diseño arquitectónico de las mezquitas cordobesas mediante el análisis metrológico y de modulación de algunos conjuntos excavados en la capital andalusí. A través del estudio minucioso de las dimensiones de los patios y salas de oración, tratamos de determinar qué unidades métricas se aplicaron en el diseño y posterior ejecución de estos edificios, cómo se planteó su construcción o si existieron proporciones generales que rigiesen el diseño de cada una de sus partes. La aplicación de esta metodología a los conjuntos documentados ha permitido reconocer una tipología para las mezquitas califales cordobesas. Esta confirma la cronología de determinados conjuntos y sugiere detalles relativos a su organización interna, se relaciona con los ritmos constructivos detectados en la mezquita mayor, y permite hipótesis de reconstrucción de algunos conjuntos no documentados en su totalidad.

An empirical model of the sunlight bleaching efficiency of brick surfaces

Thermoluminescence (TL) is widely used for brick dating to reconstruct the building chronology of urban complexes. It can be sometimes inconclusive, since TL assesses the firing period of bricks that can be reused in different structures, even several centuries later. This problem can be circumvented by using a dating technique which uses a resetting event different from the last heating of the material: an ideal candidate is OSL, exploiting the last exposure to sunlight of the brick surface, which resets the light sensitive electron traps until the surface is definitely shielded by mortar and superimposed bricks and this advanced application of the OSL technique (surface dating) has been successfully attempted on rocks, marble and stone artifacts, but not routinely on bricks.A non-rapid decrease of surface signal as a consequence of a short exposure to light results in a limit of the applicability of surface dating technique. To quantify the optical bleaching in the brick surface layers, the material OSL after sunlight exposure has been checked. The dependence of OSL/IRSL on signal the penetration depth of sunlight and on the exposure time has been studied.Subsamples were cut from the inner core of a XV century brick: the newly created surfaces, never exposed before, were put under daylight for different times (60 s - 1 year), and their residual OSL/IRSL signal was monitored as a function of both depth and exposure time. After one year of exposure, the first external layer (0–0.5 mm) resulted partially bleached with a 20% residual. It is observed that the models proposed so far to describe the luminescence depth profile in rocks are not applicable for the bricks. The use of a newly developed numerical model gives the possibility to evaluate the bleaching effectiveness of solar exposure for archaeological bricks.

Insight into the Fulnek Church and Parish Medieval Building Chronology

Abstract The church of the Holy Trinity and parish in Fulnek was for nearly four centuries an Augustinian canonry and collegiate church (1293-1389). The medieval church and parish building chronology, however, have not been thus far established. From research between 2015 and 2016 we have been able to identify medieval portions of the buildings, clarify the site medieval construction phases and date the parish buildings (formerly the canonry) from dendrochronological analysis of embedded wooden scaffolding.

Análisis gráfico de los criterios de proyección de la Gran Vía de Colón de Granada y de su evolución constructiva

<p class="referenciacitapgina">La construcción de la Gran Vía de Colón de Granada se desarrolla entre 1898, año en el que se construye la Iglesia del Sagrado Corazón y 1934, fecha aproximada de finalización del edificio de la Caja de Previsión Social. A partir del análisis gráfico del plano de distribución de fincas del proyecto original, firmado en 1891 por el arquitecto municipal Modesto Cendoya y Busquets, de las tipologías edificatorias empleadas -modelo de vivienda de renta- y utilizando el dibujo como herramienta de interpretación de la cronología edificatoria, se revela la evolución de los criterios proyectuales iniciales de esta singular operación de apertura en contraste con el resultado final. Su ejecución estuvo permanentemente condicionada a circunstancias económicas y factores de improvisación que supusieron, entre otros efectos, la alteración del reparto original de solares, adaptándose a las vicisitudes económicas y técnicas sobrevenidas durante los treinta y seis años que duró su construcción.</p>

An Overview of the Use of Absolute Dating Techniques in Ancient Construction Materials

The reconstruction of the chronology of historical buildings is a tricky issue, as usually there are not historical documents that allow the assessment of construction phases, and some materials are hardly reliable for the use of dating techniques (e.g., stone). However, in the last two decades, important advances on the use of absolute dating methods on building materials have increased the possibilities of reconstructing building chronologies, although some advances are still scarcely known among archaeologists and architects. Recent studies performed on several kinds of mortars, fired bricks, mud-bricks, and even stone surfaces have shown that it is possible to date them. Both radiocarbon and luminescence dating have been the most frequently used techniques but others such as archaeomagnetism can also be used in some cases. This paper intends to give an overview of the recent achievements on the use of absolute dating techniques for building materials.

Vilniaus Šv. Mikalojaus bažnyčios plytos – nuo jų ženklinimų iki geocheminių sąsajų

Straipsnio autoriai pristato vizualųjį plytų ženklinimo, plytų dydžių analizės ir geocheminių tyrimų metodus, kurie buvo kompleksiškai pritaikyti tiriant Vilniaus Šv. Mikalojaus bažnyčios mūrus (plytas). Šių metodų pritaikymo tikslas – pateikti naujas galimybes spręsti senųjų mūrų chronologinius bei plytų gamybos technologinius klausimus.

Dating Historical Buildings: An Update on the Possibilities of Absolute Dating Methods

ABSTRACTThe reconstruction of the history of a building represents a difficult task, as written information is not usually available or incomplete. Some building materials (e.g., bricks, wood) have been classically used for absolute dating while on others has been considered unreliable (e.g., stone). However, developments and tests performed in the last 20 years have shown important advances on the use of such methods, increasing the possibilities of successful reconstruction of building chronologies, although most of these advances are still scarcely known by the community involved in the site management (e.g., archaeologists, architects). Both, radiocarbon and luminescence dating have been the most successful techniques but others, such as archaeomagnetism, can also be used. Even, some important events such as fires could be dated. The purpose of this work is to provide an overview of the last achievements of absolute dating techniques available in building materials.

Sources of uncertainties in OSL dating of archaeological mortars: The case study of the Roman amphitheatre “Palais-Gallien” in Bordeaux

Archaeological mortars are more convenient and much more representative for the chronology of buildings than brick or wood constructions that can be re-used from older buildings. Before dating unknown samples of mortars, further investigation of OSL from mortars is required and the most efficient methodology needs to be established. In this study we compared the ages obtained by OSL dating of quartz extracted from mortars of the Roman amphitheatre Palais-Gallien in Bordeaux with independent age information.Resetting of the OSL signal occurred during the preparation of mortar when grains of sand (quartz) were extracted and mixed with lime and water. The mortar was subsequently hidden from light by embedding within the structure which is the event to be dated.Various factors contribute to uncertainties in the age determination. The frequency of measured equivalent doses reveals a large scattering. Optical bleaching of certain grains can be partial due to the short duration of the exposure to light. We worked with the single grain technique in order to find and select the grains that were sufficiently exposed to daylight. To determine the average equivalent dose, we tried three different approaches: a calculation of an arithmetic mean and one following either the central age model or the 3-parameter minimum age model, the latter turned out to be the only relevant way to evaluate the experimental data. The proportion of grains included in the calculation of the average equivalent dose represents 2.7–4.7 % of the overall analysed grains. The results obtained for the three out of four samples are approaching the expected age, however, the minimum doses and the corresponding ages are significantly over-estimated in case of two samples.The studied material is very coarse, which causes heterogeneity of irradiation at the single grain scale, and contributes to a dispersion of equivalent doses. Different analytical methods (scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy cartography, Beta-radiography imaging, inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry) were employed to demonstrate the presence of this phenomenon.Despite the extremely large proportion of high equivalent doses in equivalent dose distributions, there is an apparent presence of well-bleached grains at the beginning of equivalent dose distributions. The study shows the potential of dating mortars by single grain OSL.