Chromatic Elements Research Articles

The Impact of the Biographies of French Realist Novelists on the Use of Chromatic Elements in their Literary Works

In order to interpret precisely and deeply the chromatic elements used in the works of several French realist novelists, such as Honoré de Balzac (A Woman of Thirty, The History of César Birotteau Rise and Fall), Gustave Flaubert (Madame Bovary, Salammbô), Stendhal (Red and Black), Guy de Maupassant (Bel-Ami) and Prosper Mérimée (Carmen), the thorough analysis of main biographical references in the authors life and creation is essential, because these could necessarily influence the writers coloristic predilections and, implicitly, their materialization modalities in artistic texts. The chromatic elements analysis performed through the prism of the authors' biographies certain aspects impact on their literary works, allows us to affirm that existential problems, personal experiences, relationship with the socio-human environment have a noteworthy and suggestive importance for artistic creation, in general, and for the modality of a literary work main idea conveying to the reader, in particular. The chromatic elements active use corresponds, most of the time, to important stages in the writers' lives, to psychotypical traits manifested by them both in their daily and creative activities. In the given context, chromatics serves as an effective tool to achieve the author's intention to focus reader's attention on the character inner world, to lead him to identify the psychological motivation of events that happened and to make him reflect on them.

The logo and its importance in improving brand perception in higher education institutions.

The logo, as an institutional graphic representation, transmits the values and fundamental principles of the institutions. The objective of the research was to expose the factors that can motivate changes in the iconic and chromatic elements that make up logos, and the benefits that these can have for higher education institutions. The methodology used was qualitative and documentary, with 18 units of analysis from 2010 to 2022, the logos of the State University of Milagro in Ecuador were compared. Among the results, it has been observed that the correct graphic conformation of the logos can help correct weaknesses in the visual identity of the institutions that present brand association problems. It concludes, that the lack of knowledge of the structural principles of the identity manual and of the brand projection are causes of the bad perception that the public has of the values, principles, and technological scope of the institutions.

COLOURS IN POLITICS IN SPANISH SPEAKING COUNTRIES

The paper focuses on means of the expression containing a chromatic element in their structure. These kinds of expressions are both figurative and denominative names (including occasional names) occurring in the language of politicians themselves or, in general, in the language related to politics in any political context. The aim is to find out, which colours are the most used in political discourse in Spain and Spanish-speaking countries, and how they are used; what the individual colours express and in what connections they occur (collocations, comparisons, metaphorical constructions, terms, etc.). The naming units are excerpted from the web corpora Araneum and CREA so that in the research sample, only one meaning from each usage is included. The lexical units with a chromatic element are analysed throughout lexical-semantic analysis – their use in context, their meanings, and connotations are studied. The study reveals the most and the least used colours in the political context, as well as the most frequent types of naming units in which they appear.

Unmixing octopus camouflage by multispectral mapping of Octopus bimaculoides’ chromatic elements

Abstract Cephalopods camouflage abilities arise from highly specialized chromatic elements in their skin, chromatophores, iridophores, and leucophores, that enable them to display complex and rapidly changing color patterns. Despite the extensive study of these chromatic elements in squid and cuttlefish, full characterization of their individual optical response is still elusive in the Octopus species. We present here detailed multispectral analysis and mapping of the Octopus bimaculoides skin that allows to precisely identify the spatial distribution of the animal’s pigmented and structural elements. The mutual interaction of chromatophores and iridophores is also characterized both in terms of spectral response and spatial localization. The spectral information obtained through this analysis helps to understand the complexity and behavior of these natural tissues while continuing to serve as an inspiration for the fabrication of advanced, chromatically adaptable materials.

“Ata este cordón escarlata”. El color rojo y la identidad en los relatos bíblicos de Rajab y Jezabel

La mujer extranjera es, dentro de la narración bíblica, una de las mayores amenazas para el orden y la identidad del pueblo de Israel. En las figuras de Rahab y Jezabel encontramos dos maneras distintas de hacer frente a la alteridad femenina: mientras que Rahab tiene un lugar dentro de la comunidad, Jezabel permanece como lo absoluto otro. Dos motivos iconográficos juegan un papel relevante en la construcción literaria de ambos personajes. Por una parte, la presencia de la ventana como lugar de acción desde el que las mujeres participan en la narración y, por otra, el empleo de un detalle cromático que parece sellar sus destinos: tanto en el lazo escarlata (שָׁנִי) que salva a Rahab durante la conquista de Jericó como en la sangre de Jezabel (דָּם) que salpica sobre los muros cuando es asesinada (2 Reyes 9,33), parecen señalar las sentencias de vida o de muerte que las aguarda.La lectura que aquí se propone pretende poner en relación ambas historias a partir del uso de la ventana y del color rojo y su posible significado dentro de las dinámicas de inclusión y exclusión que operan dentro del texto.

The influence of protective netting on tree physiology and fruit quality of apple: A review

Abstract The use of protective netting (also called shade nets or anti-hail nets) is being increasingly adopted in apple (Malus × domestica) production. Protective netting is mainly used to prevent fruit sunburn and protect trees against hail damage. Netting can also be used for protection against damage from birds, fruit bats, insects, wind and sand storms. In recent times, protective nets have been modified into photoselective nets by incorporating chromatic elements into the netting material. These change the spectral characteristics of the solar radiation reaching the tree canopy below the net and can affect physiological pathways that respond to the altered light spectra. Protective netting primarily modifies light quantity and quality underneath by reducing light intensity by an approximately pre-determined percentage. Protective netting has also been reported to reduce wind speed and soil temperature with minimal impact on canopy temperature and relative humidity. Quantifying the influence of protective netting on tree gas exchange has been difficult due to variations in the environmental conditions at the time of measurement. Reductions in light intensity due to protective netting result in increased leaf area, shoot length, and total shoot fresh weight that increases as the net shading percentage increases. Fruit set, return bloom, and flower induction are all affected by protective netting. Ultimately, fruit quality is the critical factor determining whether protective netting is suitable for apple production. The reported results on the effect of protective netting on fruit quality have not been conclusive. It has been suggested that changes in fruit quality under protective netting are often more influenced by the environmental conditions in that specific growing season than the netting itself. For example, typical shade responses under netting can be exacerbated when the natural overall light intensity is reduced on cloudy days. In conclusion, protective netting provides an alternative to traditional approaches to protecting apple from sunburn, mechanical injury from hail and wind, and abiotic stress that limits tree productivity. However, the inconsistent reported results suggest a targeted approach is needed to identify specific physiological responses of apple under protective netting, and more specifically, photoselective netting as a strategy to protect apple orchards from adverse environmental conditions.

WHAT BEETHOVEN LEARNED FROM K464

ABSTRACTBeethoven imitated Mozart's String Quartet in A major K464 more openly than any other work by a fellow composer. Yet critics have never explained his fascination with the fifth ‘Haydn’ quartet. This article argues that Beethoven responded to a rare and unexplored transformation of sonata form in which the primary theme returns at its original pitch in the secondary area. This preserves the melody of the theme, but reinterprets its harmonic and schematic function. Mozart explored this device with unusual rigour in k464, recalling the primary theme at pitch in both outer movements. The two primary themes share a common chromatic line whose invariant return wittily probes late eighteenth-century tonal conventions.Beethoven emulated Mozart's harmonic design in his own Quartet in A major, Op. 18 No. 5, and even intensified its more problematic features. He imitated k464 most literally in the finale of the ‘Kreutzer’ Sonata, which provided a model for similar harmonic experimentation in the Sonata in G major Op. 31 No. 1, the ‘Waldstein’ Sonata and the first ‘Razumovsky’ quartet. k464 suggests an important source for Beethoven's use of chromatic elements to problematize tonal and thematic function, a practice most evident in the ‘Eroica’ Symphony.

Nitric oxide in chromatic body patterning elements of Sepia officinalis

The spectacular variety of body coloration patterns in Sepia officinalis reflects the concerted activity of the skin chromatic elements, chromatophores, leucophores and iridophores. Recent studies have revealed that nitric oxide is an important messenger in the long term maintenance of the body coloration, inducing chromatophore expansion downstream glutamate activation. Herein we describe the presence of nitric oxide synthase and nitric oxide synthesis in isolated juvenile iridophores in Sepia. The possible roles of nitric oxide in the complex mechanisms leading to body coloration patterns in cephalopods are an important focus for ongoing and future studies.

Triadic Modal and Pentatonic Patterns in Rock Music

The pitch syntax of mainstream rock music comprises a variety of tonal, modal, blues-based and chromatic elements. Traditional constructs of scale-degree theory and harmonic functionality, while originally pertaining to art music, can be usefully modified to address elements of rock music that do not conform to tonal norms, particularly when these elements are considered in conjunction with other musical parameters such as rhythm, hypermeter, texture, consonance, and contour. This study examines the context and function of some harmonic structures unique to rock music that cannot be interpreted in conventional tonal terms: double-plagal and Aeolian progressions, and triad-doubled scale systems.

The Deep-time Research by Chromatometry: An Example from the Cenomanian to Turonian Stages of the Cretaceous, Gongza Section, Southern Tibet

Chromatic methods have been widely used in paleoclimate research for unconsolidated or semiconsolidated sediments. However, few researches on diagenetic rocks using these methods have been reported, for their primary compositions and colors may be altered in the process of diagenesis and postdiagenesis. Thus, the deep-time research by chromatometry is still open to question. Ninety-eight Cretaceous rock samples collected from the Gongza section, Tingri, southern Tibet, were studied using chromatic methods, together with microscopic observations and major elements analysis. Main conclusions were drawn as follows: (1) In the CIE1976 L* a* b* color space, the variation trends of L* and a*, with mirror symmetry, indicate two main semiperiods of 9.2 m and 1.8 m obtained by Fast Fourier Transformation; while L* and b* values show similar variation trends. (2) Correlation analysis between the chromatic indices and major elements suggests that L* value has a positive correlation with the content of carbonate, b* value is mainly influenced by manganese content, and together they can put some constrains on the chemical change of paleoocean; whereas a* value is largely controlled by the content of clay minerals, which reflect the paleoclimatic changes.

Neural regulation of a complex behavior: body patterning in cephalopod molluscs

Unshelled cephalopods have a remarkable ability to alter their appearance, using textural, postural, and chromatic elements to generate a myriad of body patterns. Of the unshelled cephalopods, it is generally acknowledged that cuttlefish express the most detailed and widest range of body patterns, including static and dynamic patterns. In this paper we present data on the neuronal mechanisms underlying this amazing behavior, focusing on the neuroregulation of the chromatic elements, the chromatophore organs, in the European cuttlefish Sepia officinalis. Cephalopod chromatophore organs, including those in Sepia, are unlike those in any other animal taxa; each consists of a pigment-containing chromatophore cell that expands in response to the coordinated activation of a set of radial muscles which are directly attached to the chromatophore cell. We show that the chromatophore muscles are regulated by 2 different excitatory transmitters, glutamate and the family of FMRFamide-related peptides (FaRPs). Glutamate mediates rapid and transient chromatophore cell expansion whereas the FaRPs are responsible for slower, more sustained responses. Using retrograde dye filling, immunocytochemical and in situ hybridization techniques, we demonstrate that the cell bodies of the glutamatergic and FaRPs-containing motoneurons innervating the fin chromatophore muscles are primarily localized to the posterior chromatophore and fin lobes in the posterior subesophageal mass of the Sepia brain. Data are also presented showing that some fin chromatophore motoneurons have multiple axons in different nerve branches, which accounts for overlapping chromatophore motor fields by adjacent peripheral nerves.

Subjective color from apparent motion.

In an effect we call color from motion (CFM), apparent motion is accompanied by subjective color spread seen in physically achromatic regions. Here we report that physical lights can cancel the subjective color seen in CFM. As measured by cancellation, the saturation of the subjective color spread increases as the luminance of the test elements increase. Without luminance differences between test and surround elements, chromaticity differences alone can result in the perception of subjective color spread. In this case, subjective color spread is seen without seeing a subjective contour, suggesting that CFM does not require contour formation and that color - independent of contour - can be recovered in tandem with seeing motion. There are two modes in which CFM is perceived, either (1) as a localized change of illumination, a colored spotlight or shadow, moving over a textured surface or (2) as a moving, colored object seen through holes in an occluding surface. The mode in which CFM is seen depends on figural cues and on regional differences in luminance contrast between the chromatic elements and the achromatic background. Regions with distinct figural cues are always seen as moving; and CFM is seen in the first mode if the regions are of lower luminance contrast and in the second mode if the regions are of higher luminance contrast. Without figural cues, the regions of lower luminance contrast are always seen to move and CFM is seen in the first mode.

The Expression and Composition of Color

The pictorial medium of representation uses shape and color to serve two basic functions. One of them connects things belonging together and separates the ones that should be apart. The second function serves identification. Using shape and color, it distinguishes kinds of people, different professions, and even individuals. Soldiers or policemen are recognized by what they wear; black and white distinguish the mourners from the happy brides, and the images of the Madonna are known by her blue coat and red dress. In a confusingly complex world, color distinguishes objects from their setting in the environment. A fire hydrant stands out in the street, and the distinctively colored buttons or handles of a machine guide the eyes to direct action. So do the colors of traffic signals. The pictorial use of shape and color is based on the nature of their elements. Shapes derive from line, circle, disk, or square; color derives from the three chromatic primaries, red, blue, yellow, and the achromatic black and white. Each of the three secondary colors-orange, green, violet-holds the balance between two primaries of equal strength. Each of the six tertiaries stands between a primary and a secondary. Each therefore unites components of unequal strength. Together, the three categories form the chromatic color circle (fig. 1). The three categories of color have different characters. The primaries are the basic pillars of color composition. They are powerful and inflexible and therefore hard. Their presence influences their neighbors, but they are not influenced by them. The secondaries are also balanced, and each of the primaries of which they are made up connects with its neighbor outside. Therefore the secondaries serve as bridges. The dynamic influence of a secondary can pull to the left or the right, depending on the attractive power of the neighbors. When, for example, a green secondary is pulled by a strong blue on the left, the "traffic" on the bridge moves in that direction. Black and white, the fourth and fifth primaries, lie outside the chromatic circle. Therefore, all color systems are three-dimensional, spheres or cones, with the central axis formed by the scale from white to black. The differences between the three categories of color account for what is called the difference between cold and warm colors. The sensations of temperature are paralleled by qualities of color.' The straight inflexibility of primaries makes them feel cold; the complexity of secondaries and tertiaries gives them a flexibility that makes them akin to warmth.2 The expression of colors is influenced also by their association with phenomena of nature. White and yellow look like light, green like foliage, and red and pink have the warmth of blood. Black looks like the darkness of night. Therefore when a modern painter changes natural colors, his colors look like deviations from the natural ones. When Emil Nolde makes a face green, it assumes a deadly paleness, and the red water of the ocean looks warm. I mentioned that primary colors influence others, but are not influenced by them. It is also true, however, that by appearing in the company of others they can form a partial or complete whole. The three primaries become a whole by complementing each other because they comprise all the chromatic elements. Two secondaries will do the same; for example, in orange and a violet overlap and cover the chromatic whole with a surplus. But it would take all six tertiaries to make up a whole.

The Expression and Composition of Color

The pictorial medium of representation uses shape and color to serve two basic functions. One of them connects things belonging together and separates the ones that should be apart. The second function serves identification. Using shape and color, it distinguishes kinds of people, different professions, and even individuals. Soldiers or policemen are recognized by what they wear; black and white distinguish the mourners from the happy brides, and the images of the Madonna are known by her blue coat and red dress. In a confusingly complex world, color distinguishes objects from their setting in the environment. A fire hydrant stands out in the street, and the distinctively colored buttons or handles of a machine guide the eyes to direct action. So do the colors of signals. The pictorial use of shape and color is based on the nature of their elements. Shapes derive from line, circle, disk, or square; color derives from the three chromatic primaries, red, blue, yellow, and the achromatic black and white. Each of the three secondary colors-orange, green, violet-holds the balance between two primaries of equal strength. Each of the six tertiaries stands between a primary and a secondary. Each therefore unites components of unequal strength. Together, the three categories form the chromatic color circle (fig. 1). The three categories of color have different characters. The primaries are the basic pillars of color composition. They are powerful and inflexible and therefore hard. Their presence influences their neighbors, but they are not influenced by them. The secondaries are also balanced, and each of the primaries of which they are made up connects with its neighbor outside. Therefore the secondaries serve as bridges. The dynamic influence of a secondary can pull to the left or the right, depending on the attractive power of the neighbors. When, for example, a green secondary is pulled by a strong blue on the left, the traffic on the bridge moves in that direction. Black and white, the fourth and fifth primaries, lie outside the chromatic circle. Therefore, all color systems are three-dimensional, spheres or cones, with the central axis formed by the scale from white to black. The differences between the three categories of color account for what is called the difference between cold and warm colors. The sensations of temperature are paralleled by qualities of color.' The straight inflexibility of primaries makes them feel cold; the complexity of secondaries and tertiaries gives them a flexibility that makes them akin to warmth.2 The expression of colors is influenced also by their association with phenomena of nature. White and yellow look like light, green like foliage, and red and pink have the warmth of blood. Black looks like the darkness of night. Therefore when a modern painter changes natural colors, his colors look like deviations from the natural ones. When Emil Nolde makes a face green, it assumes a deadly paleness, and the red water of the ocean looks warm. I mentioned that primary colors influence others, but are not influenced by them. It is also true, however, that by appearing in the company of others they can form a partial or complete whole. The three primaries become a whole by complementing each other because they comprise all the chromatic elements. Two secondaries will do the same; for example, in orange and a violet overlap and cover the chromatic whole with a surplus. But it would take all six tertiaries to make up a whole.

Visual Neural Performance for Chromatic Displays

Various subjective procedures have been used in the past to examine the visual disorders and ocular symptoms often associated with prolonged usage of Video Display Units (VDU's). We examined visual neural performance for VDU stimuli which differed in size (14, 21, or 28 min arc), chromaticity (white, red, green, or blue), and retinal clarity, by transient pattern visually evoked potentials (t-p VEP's). Such information could prove useful in the design of electro-optical display systems that optimize visual neural performance and minimize ocular fatigue. Stimuli consisted of "monochromatic" (W, R, G, or Blue on black) and "multichromatic" (Blue/R, Blue/G, and R/G) checkerboards with brightness-matched chromatic elements displayed on a high resolution RGB monitor at 40 and 80 cm. The ambient lighting level was 54 lux. Group-averaged amplitudes and implicit times of t-p VEP's from 20 visually normal subjects indicated a differential neural response across target colors and three experimentally induced levels of blur. For monochromatic stimuli, the Blue/Black targets elicited t-p VEP's with the lowest amplitude, longest implicit time, and greatest sensitivity to optical defocus. Increasing the target element size reduced the VEP sensitivity to defocus across all colors except red. For multichromatic targets, Red/Green targets elicited the most vulnerable t-p VEP's. Several optical and neural explanations are given to explain these results. Implications for VDU designs are presented.

Altérations de l'embryogenèse de Marsilea vestita provoquées par un faible abaissement de température et phénomènes de récupération après retour aux conditions initiales

Under controlled conditions, all the fertilized eggs of Marsilea vestita give rise to well-organized embryos in a few hours. The first cleavage divisions of the zygote are fast and synchronous at 24 °C, whereas they are very modified, slowed down, and unstable at 16 °C. Cold treatment induces morphological and structural alterations, the number and the degree of which are correlated with the treatment duration. The most important alteration concerns the mitotic spindle orientation, which is often aberrant. The ensuing cell wall formation is disrupted, branched, and incomplete; consequently the daughter nuclei exhibit abnormal locations. Furthermore they no longer divide synchronously. The identification of the first segments then becomes impossible. In these cells, some chromatic elements having the appearance of mitotic chromosomes are often located near the spindle; these misplaced chromosomes, therefore, are not integrated to the spindle apparatus. A cold treatment applied at fertilization is effective in preventing the polyspermy block. The supernumerary spermatozoids remain in the cytoplasm of the zygote but never fuse with its nucleus. Despite their altered ontogeny, most treated specimens display, when returned to 24 °C, a surprising ability to recover a normal topographic organization.

The Diatonic and the Chromatic in Schenker's "Theory of Harmonic Relations"

Of all issues in music theory, few are more perplexing than explaining the coherence of highly chromatic tonal music. In many cases the difficulties are interpretative and vary from piece to piece. But more often the problems are conceptual in nature and stem from the basic ways in which we think about the tonal system. At least since the time of Rameau, theorists have defined tonality through diatonic relationships based on the major and minor scales. Consequently, they have regarded chromatic elements as elaborations of or substitutions for diatonic scale members. As Leonard B. Meyer explains, Chromaticism is almost by definition an alteration of, an interpolation in or deviation from this basic diatonic organization. While this approach works well enough for pieces in which chromatic elements appear as local inflections, it is less successful for thosesuch as Bach's Chromatic Fantasy and Fugue or Haydn's Chaos-in which chromaticism seems to dominate the texture. To account for these more extreme cases, theorists confront an awkward dilemma: either they must treat the works as mutations of diatonic structures, or they must place them outside the limits of normal tonal theory. Neither solution is satisfactory: the former largely devalues the structural implications of chromatic events, and the latter suggests that

A note on eye movements as a measure of emotional reactivity to chromatic elements in Rorschach stimuli.

A note on eye movements as a measure of emotional reactivity to chromatic elements in Rorschach stimuli.

Sôbre a meiose de Dysdercus mendesi bloete (1937) - Hemiptera, pyrrhocoridæ

1 - The spermatogonia of Dysdercus mendesi Bloete have 16 chromosomes : 7 pairs of autosomes and 2 sex-chromosomes. 2 - After the last spermatogonia! division, the chromatin of the autosomes diffuses and the nucleoplasm assumes an uniform granulai- aspect ; each sex-chromosome is involved by a vesicle and stands well colored. 3 - While the chromatin of the autosomes starts to condense again, to form the long threads (that finnally are seen in a paired condition) the cycle of the sex-chromosomes is as follows : a) yet contained in the vesicles, they grow in size and become long rods ; b) the vesicles disappear, the sex-chromosomes move inside the nucleoplasm and come to be disposed longitudinally, close together. c) they touch each other, become fissured, and a tetradlike chromatic element is formed, which contracts itself, remaining always well colored. 4 - The hetero-pycnosis of the sex-chromosomes is observed through the whole grow phase of the spermatocyte I. 5 - The separation of the sex-chromosome tetrad, originating two independent sex-chromosomes, is observed in the early grow phase of the spermatocyte as well as during any other period of this phase. The latest separation is observed during the diffuse stage of the nucleus. 6 - When the autosomes are in diakinesis, the sex-chromosomes assume the aspect of chromosomes in pachytene. 7 - In metaphase I the autosomic tetrads are in a more condensed and colored condition than the sex-chromosomes. The sex-chromosomes move to the center of the autosome-forming circle, but there is no contact between them. 8 - In anaphase I it is observed 2 interzonal connections between each autosomic dyad ; some exceptions are observed. Only one interzonal connection is observed between the separating sex-chromosomes. Moving to the poles the sex-chromosomes also approximate one to the other. 9 - In telophase I the sex-chromosome touch each other, and fuse side-by-side, forming only one chromatic element. The line of fusion is well visible through the subsequent stages of meiosis. 10 - In metaphase II the autosomes are disposed at the equator. The sex-chromosome, dyad is also disposed at the equator, as well as at any other position. 11 - In anaphase II the separation of the auto.somes is normal, and it is seen only one interzonal connection between its halves. The sex-chromosome dyad do not separate and moves to one pole, always in precession. 12 - There are two classes of spermatids : a) with 7 autosomes ; b) with 7 autosomes plus the sex-chromosome dyad. 13 - During the first phases of the spermatogeneses the 7-autosomc containing nucleus presents a reticulated aspect ; the sex-chromosome-dyad containing nucleus shows this chromatic element well colored inside the reticulated nucleoplasm. 14 - The male of Dysdercus mendesi Bloete has 7 AA + XX chromosomes. NOTE - A discussion on the movements of the sex-chromosome and its cycle. as well as on some aspects of the pairing of the autosomes, is being prepared. It will be published in the near future. The female of Dysdercus mendesi Bloete has 2n = 14A+4X.

On the chromosomes of three species of deep-sea crabs

The present paper deals with the chromosomes in the male germ cells of the following three species of the deep-sea crabs (Decapoda, Reptantia), which were obtained from the Suruga Bay, west of Izu Peninsula, at depths of 200 to 400 meters; Macrocheira kampferi, Nephropsis carpenteri and Nephrops japonicus. The numerical relations of the chromosomes existing in these species of crabs here investigated and morphological features of their chromosomes may be clearly understood from the following table and by reference to the accompanying figures (cf. Figs. 1-14).It is noteworthy that the tetrads (bivalent chromosomes) observed in the primary spermatocyte of Nephropsis carpenteri do not assume the usual type of compact dumbbell shape widely seen in Decapoda in general, but each consists of well differentiated quadripartite chromatic elements. The fact that about a half of all the tetrads in the closely related species, Nephrops japonicus, possess a similar quadripartite structure, seems to suggest a systematical relationship existing between the two species.In none of the cases described above, was there any evidence for the presence of the particular chromosomes, either in behaviour or in structure.