Christian Theology Research Articles

Kemerdekaan Berfikir dan Berteologi Kristen

This research discusses freedom of thought as an important element in the development of Christian theology and how the church responds to modern social challenges. Freedom of thought, although it often faces obstacles from church authority and attachment to tradition, provides opportunities for a more inclusive and progressive theological dialogue. This research uses a qualitative approach with a descriptive method, which involves in-depth interviews with church leaders and document analysis. The results show that freedom of thought contributes to enriching Christian theology and strengthens its relevance in responding to social issues, such as gender equality and social justice. This study concludes that freedom of thought plays an important role in maintaining the relevance of Christian theology in the midst of changing times without ignoring the teachings of the core faith.

Exploring Ethical Potentials of Christian Narrative Testimonies

Abstract Over the last decades, the role of narratives in Christian theology and ethics has been debated controversially. In light of this, this article explores the ethical potential of Christian narrative testimonies. First, it shows that the mode of Christian testimony to God’s incarnation in Jesus Christ is narratively structured. Second, it unfolds a threefold hermeneutic of these narratives: a hermeneutic of the simultaneous presence and absence of God in these testimonies, a hermeneutic of commentary and criticism, and a hermeneutic of attentive humility in the face of other narratives. Last but not least, ethical potentials of Christian narrative testimonies come into view: These narratives can bear witness to God’s absent presence, especially when they reveal themselves as radical contingent, when they are open to transformation by narratives of the other and when they motivate people to question the status quo of any given society in order to act for a more just future.

Missio Dei and Missio Hominum: Top-Down-up Christology in Mission

In Christian theology, Christology remains a distinct branch of knowledge offering articulation of the hypostatic union or relationship between the divine and human natures of Jesus Christ. Its exploration of Christ’s nature and identity moves from the pre-incarnation to post-ascension as enclosing Christ’s birth, earthly mission, resurrection, and ascension. Consequently, or in attempting to streamline such a complex knowledge, Christological theologians developed two categorization frameworks in the form of ‘top-down Christology’ and ‘bottom-up Christology’. When sketchily integrated into missiological frameworks, the missio Dei conforms to top-down Christology, whereas missio hominum conforms more to bottom-up Christology. In their transient articulation of Jesus Christ’s identity, the missio Dei on the one hand embraces the top-down Christology while the missio hominum on the other hand or correspondingly embraces the bottom-up Christology. Accordingly, or given the lack of missiological scholarship deriving the unique understanding of the missio Dei and consequently missio hominum through Christology, this article draws on literature to weave their novel understanding as anchored by Christ’s hypostatic union. Consequently, it first rationalizes the Missio Dei within top-down Christology before anchoring the Missio Hominum within bottom-up Christology. Determinedly, further studies will be required to test the novelty of this approach, as there appears to be no existential science that interprets Missio Dei and Missio Hominum through top-down-up Christology. Keywords: Missiology; Missio Dei; missio hominum; Top-down Christology; Bottom-up Christology.

The theodicies of Hans Jonas and Jürgen Moltmann: Proposing an alternative reformed angle

Auschwitz had a profound impact on the theological landscape. It led to God’s lordship, goodness and power being put on trial. If God exists and if he is a good and powerful God, why did he not intervene to stop the atrocities committed during the Holocaust? The theologies of the Jewish philosopher Hans Jonas and the Christian theologian Jürgen Moltmann were decisively structured by these questions.Contribution: This article compares the theodicies of these two influential thinkers within the Jewish and Christian traditions by analysing their concepts of God, the nature of the cosmos and human history as well as their respective views on God’s response to suffering. Despite showing appreciation for profound insights, this article points out impasses in their arguments. Drawing on a reformed approach to the question, the article concludes that the anthropodicy question is the real elephant in the room, not the theodicy question. Instead of asking questions about God’s goodness, Reformed theology posits the incomprehensibility of human beings turning against God. We must ask: How does it happen that a self-conscious being possessing innate moral capacities, such as moral emotions and vicarious intersubjective capabilities, rebels against God and engage in atrocious acts? Seen from this perspective, the theodicy question seems to be undergirded by the human propensity to moral disengagement and blame-shifting. Perhaps, instead of putting God on trial, humans must resort to introspection.

Toward a Theology of Trans Opacity: Trans Studies’ Critique of Queer Theory in Conversation with Karl Barth’s Doctrine of Revelation

While it is generally known that the disciplinary origins of feminist and queer religious studies are enmeshed with the production of anti-trans feminisms, theological legacies of this historical entanglement remain largely unaddressed. Although later feminist and queer theologies might not explicitly take up these anti-trans positions, trans identity is still often instrumentalized in its incorporation into queer and feminist theological discourse for rhetorical and methodological gain without attention to the subjectivity and self-understanding of trans people themselves. This article argues that the theology of Karl Barth, when read with his feminist and queer critics, provides resources for critiquing this kind of trans instrumentalization in his doctrine of revelation and critique of natural theology. Moving beyond either reactionary dismissal or instrumentalized incorporation, this article instead argues for a right to opacity for trans people in Christian theology and practice resourced from Barth’s theology.

The Church in the Public Space: Lessons from the Exodus Church in Jürgen Moltmann’s Theology of Hope

The ecclesial community's call to duty and ability to carry out its mission is centered on how relevant it must become to the existential realities of those living in the public sphere. Jürgen Moltmann makes what can only be considered as a concise statement when he states that, to make Christianity accessible to the masses, theology must openly uphold the universal concerns of God's coming Kingdom. The church, following its own faith principles, must demonstrate "general concern in the light of hope in Christ for the kingdom of God" by becoming "political in the name of the poor and the marginalized in a given society, by thinking critically about the religious and moral values of the societies in which it exists." Christian theology continues to be the mouthpiece of the church. This article's goal is to discuss Jürgen Moltmann's straightforward explanation of the church's public relevance in helping people remember why it exists in all forms of human sociality. This article's reflections aim to highlight the fact that the Christian church can only be seen to be fulfilling its mission when it is perceived as the voice of the voiceless, bringing God's fullness to human flourishing, and providing true meaning to human tranquillity in a difficult and uncertain world.

Men Shall Be Lovers of Self, Money and Pleasure (II Timothy 3:2, 4): A Contemporary Discourse on the Apostle Paul's Prophecy of the End Times

<p><em>The present time in Nigeria and globally has been more perilous than ever, characterized with bizarre occurrences within the church and the larger society. This study explores the Pauline eschatological prediction of the perilous times when men will become lovers of self, lovers of money, and lovers of pleasure more than God (II Timothy 3:1, 2 & 5). Experiential and theological methodologies were adopted for generating qualitative primary and secondary data. The theological aspect of the research employed the tools of biblical exegesis, textual analysis, and literatures. The experiential aspect involved in-depth interviews (IDIs), observations, social media contents and Focused Group Discussions (FGDs) to access current events and personalized experiences of respondents who were purposively selected from within and outside the church. The results were discussed in the light of Christian theology, social ethics and Pastoral ministry. The Nigerian society is evidently witnessing the perilous times when love of self, money and pleasure will become the untoward defining features of human society and sadly too, of men that profess the faith. Transactional gospel, gimmickry, merchandize of holy things, and self-indulgent love of money are rife in the contemporary church. Ostentatious lifestyles, lack of support for the minister at the local church, and false messages on material blessings are what trap church ministers and laypersons in this end-time evil. The context and practice of ‘full time’ ministry when the local assembly is not able to support its minister is a challenge that predisposes some to ‘Simoniacal’ presentations, offering the gifts of God for monetary gain. Sound biblical teachings to protect the people of God and expose the mercenary spirit in sacred function is the local church most potent weaponry.</em></p><strong> </strong>

Michel de Certeau: a Jesuit Apologist

Abstract While recognizing that Michel de Certeau is not a Christian theologian, this essay argues for a way in which we might read his oeuvre as a mode of Jesuit apologetics. The basis for reading him as such is twofold. First, Certeau pays attention to the various movements of desire beneath the signs composing the discourses in the various fields of his enquiry. In tracing that transgressive desire, he is always to listening for the voice of the Other; an Other that transcends and subtends human language, but resists capture by it. Secondly, the style in which he writes allows for the ambiguities and ironies that must necessarily attend any attempt to give definitive voice to the Other. Examining these two aspects of Certeau’s oeuvre reveals a way, this essay argues, his work bears witness to the Unnamed in the secular world in which he works and the secular studies in which he engages.

State of the Field Report XV: Contemporary Chinese Studies of the Scholastic-Aristotelian Soul in Late-Ming and Early-Qing China

AbstractThe Jesuit China mission coincided with a sophisticated attempt to place Chinese and Western concepts of human nature in dialogue with Confucianism. The Jesuits believed that they could facilitate evangelization by drawing upon Confucian concepts to explain the soul. In so doing, they and their Chinese collaborators also pioneered a genre of hybrid philosophical texts, which used Aristotelian conceptions of the soul to critique and supplement autochthonous Chinese conceptions of human nature. These texts are not just of significance for Chinese Christian theology, but also anthropology, psychology, and even medicine, given the role played by the soul in both Chinese and Western conceptions of human physiology at the time. Until recently these texts have been little studied except by missiologists who were more interested in their relevance for mission history than for comparative philosophy. Scholarship has perhaps also been hampered by the immense linguistic demands of studying texts that sit between the Chinese and Western intellectual traditions. Recently, however, a number of Chinese scholars have turned their attention to these texts, intrigued by novel philosophical ideas contained therein and their complex relationship to both the Western and Chinese intellectual and religious traditions. Since many of these Chinese-language contributions are published in volumes which are not easily accessible outside of China, they have not enjoyed great visibility in Western-language scholarship. This article will review the major developments in Chinese scholarship and will conclude with suggestions for future research.

Preaching the pandemic: COVID-19 specific theodicies among Iranian evangelical Christians in the diaspora

ABSTRACT Given its roots in Christian theology, the usage of theodicy as an analytical tool in the study of religions can easily become controversial. This notwithstanding, several scholars in the field have instructively drawn upon the term to conceptually frame reactions to human suffering among religious actors in diverse contexts. This article aligns with this strand of scholarship and studies Persian-language sermons delivered in Iranian evangelical exile churches during the initial stages of the COVID-19 pandemic. It discusses four major theodicic interpretations advanced by Iranian evangelical pastors, who viewed the pandemic either as divine retribution, a ‘wake-up call’ for humankind, an opportunity for spiritual growth, or a theological lesson. Arguing that theodicies are shaped by the immediate context they emerge in, rather than by static theological paradigms, this article highlights the ex-Muslim identity and the exilic status of Iranian evangelicals in the diaspora as key factors shaping theodicy-making among them.

«Теология боли Господа» Китамори Кадзо: основные идеи

Kitamori Kazoh (1916–1998) is considered to be one of the most prominent Ja­panese theologists, whose ideas had a wide response from abroad. His main work, “Theology of the Pain of God” (Kami no Itami no Shingaku), became a spiritual breakthrough for the Japanese after the WWII, signifying a new way of development of Christianity in Japan in the postwar period. Kitamori’s idea that people feeling pain and suffering can get closer to understanding God and His pain of loving the unlovable, i.e. sinners deserving His wrath, not love, re­flected the sentiments characteristic of the Japanese who had experienced atomic bombings and defeat in the war. “Theology of the Pain of God” gained much at­tention in the 1970-s with the spread of the so-termed genitive theology, on one hand, and the rise of the interest of theologians in the reevaluation of suffering, on the other. The article aims at analyzing the key statements of “the theology of the pain of God” by Kitamori Kazoh, and the historical and cultural context of its emergence. The author focuses on Kitamori’s idea of the pain of God as emerging on the joint of God’s wrath and God’s love, being the essence of God and the keypoint upon which Christian theology should be built; on the idea of the suffering of the mankind as a symbol of God’s pain, and on Kitamori’s supposition that the Japanese, as a people that has experienced great suffering and sorrow, is chosen by God and is much closer to the understanding of the pain of God and, consequently, of the essence of God

Moltmann in America: Impact and Critical Reception

The world of Christian theology mourns the passing of Jürgen Moltmann (1926–2024), one of the most prominent Protestant theologians of the twentieth century. Moltmann's death invites a first, albeit only cursory, review of his impact in the US. Since his first stay at Duke University in 1967–1968, he spent much time here, whether on lecture tours, conferences, or for visiting appointments.

Nicaea at 1700: Roots and Branches in African Christianity

Call for papers for a themed issue of African Christian Theology (September 2025).

Latin American Christology: A God Who Liberates

This paper will investigate the dynamic nature of Latin American Christology, a Christology that cannot be separated from the tenets of liberation theology. I will first offer an overview of the development of Latin American Christology and liberation theology, along with its unique features; then, I will analyze some major representatives of Latin American Christology, specifically Jon Sobrino and St. Óscar Romero (through the research of Edgardo Colón-Emeric). Lastly, I will conclude with the relevance of Latin American Christology within the greater landscape of Christian theology today. The theologians considered in this paper are primarily Catholic theologians, with the exception of Edgardo Colón-Emeric, a Methodist pastor, who has become a global voice of authority on the life, thought, and vision of the martyred St. Óscar Romero. Latin American Christology, as will be argued in this paper, cannot be understood separately from the space, culture, and identity of Latin America—the land and the context. This measures to a pivotal pedagogical claim of Latin American Christology as a global teaching pillar for all Christologies and theologies, Catholic or Protestant, within Latin America or outside Latin America.

PERSPEKTIF PANDANGAN IMAN KRISTIANI TERHADAP FILSAFAT OKULTISME: HERMITISISME DAN KABBALAH

Kabbalah and Hermitism are often unwittingly adopted into the practice of Christian theology due to the clergy's ignorance of this occult philosophical knowledge. The practice of occult philosophy sometimes unconsciously enters into the social practice of Christian society, especially those that are thick with local culture. The concept of cultural inculturation is a legitimization that is often used as an excuse to announce the practice. The purpose of this writing is to provide theological thinking insights into the philosophical practices of the Kabbalah occult and Hermitism so that the church returns to the true teachings and is based on the principles of the Christian faith. This research method uses a qualitative method based on literature research, observation of social conditions, community culture, and history. The results of the study show that the practices of Philosophy, Kabbalah Occultism and Hermitism inadvertently inculturate the socio-pastoral conditions of the Christian faith, which also has an impact on legalized religious ritual actions.

The Christian interpretations on the nature of heaven’s mandate in late Ming and early Qing dynasties

This paper aims to examine in detail the Christian interpretations on the Confucian concept of the nature of the heaven’s mandate [天命之性] during the late Ming and early Qing dynasties from historical and textual perspective. Neo-Confucians of the Song Dynasty interpret the nature of the heaven’s mandate as human nature, believing that heaven endowed humans with reason, known as the heavenly principle [天理]. In the late Ming period, Christian missionaries such as Jesuits in China used Confucian classics to convey Christian thoughts, interpreting the heaven’s mandate as God’s mandate and the nature of the heaven’s mandate as the spirituality bestowed by God, which is equated with the soul. They also used the nature of the heaven’s mandate as a criterion for determining the authenticity of a teaching (religion[教]), asserting that Christianity is the true teaching (religion). Thus, Christianity in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties provides a new interpretation on the nature of the heaven’s mandate and promotes the integration of Christian and Confucian thoughts through this interpretation.Contribution: The paper provides a detailed review of the history of Christian interpretations on the nature of the heaven’s mandate during the late Ming and early Qing dynasties. Currently, there is limited scholarly research on the theological thoughts of Christianity during this period. This study not only enhances the understanding of the new interpretations by Christianity but also aids in comprehending the theological ideas of Christianity during the late Ming and early Qing periods. By reinterpreting Confucian classics, Christianity endowed them with new meanings, offering valuable references for the localisation of Christian theology and the study of cross-cultural exchange.

The ordinary and the mystical? Exploring the intersections of Spirituality and Public Theology

This article starts from the premise that the ordinary is the mystical. It does so by delving into the dynamic relationship between Spirituality and Public Theology against the backdrop of Christianity’s societal roles. It explores how Christian theology extends beyond private faith to address broad societal issues. Through a critical examination of Public Theology’s distinct contributions to contemporary discussions, the article emphasises the necessity of engaging Spirituality – with its focus on the divine-human relationship into this discourse.Contribution: This synthesis aims to enrich our comprehension of Christianity’s impact on public life, advocating for a faith that actively contributes to societal transformation across diverse contexts.

Tertullian, Apostolicity, and the Apostles

How did Tertullian regard the apostles? This article investigates the references to them scattered through his writings both as individuals and as a collective. It reveals that individually the apostles were remote figures who appear in the pages of the New Testament simply as interlocutors of Jesus. Even Peter, significant as he was, was someone whose role was personal to himself and not a pattern for future leadership. Yet collectively the apostles performed an important function in Tertullian’s ecclesiology; they were the first receivers and transmitters of the regula fidei, and their fidelity to that responsibility distinguished authentic Christian communities from heretical associations. The regula fidei was important to Tertullian. As a synthesis of the essentials of faith as preached and lived by Jesus, it provided the measure against which passages of Scripture and Christian belief and practice were to be interpreted. The regula relied upon the accurate and complete transmission of the message of Jesus via the apostles to the church and its leaders. The apostolicity of the church is at the heart of why Tradition is central to Christian theology.

Creation by Means of Loss and the Paradox of Expenditure—A Contribution of Theology to the Vulnerability Dispositive

This article argues that the COVID-19 pandemic has created a new dispositive of power, the vulnerability dispositive, and it clears up what a power dispositive is. It then explains what theology can contribute to this new dispositive. The paradox of expenditure (creation by means of loss) plays a special role here. Human vulnerability is an unprecedented power in personal and political life, social and cultural life, and not least in religion. It is therefore not surprising that it has become a key concept in international, interdisciplinary research in recent decades. At least since the 1980s, it has resulted in an enormous number of scientific publications in almost all scientific disciplines. For Christian theology, this has particular significance because of the doctrine of the Incarnation: when God becomes human in Jesus Christ, God risks being wounded. Christianity ascribes salvific significance to this path into vulnerability. But what significance does this have for interdisciplinary discourse beyond theology? What can theology contribute to interdisciplinary vulnerability research? The starting point for the following considerations is a specific point in vulnerability discourse: the new dispositive of vulnerability that emerged during the COVID-19 pandemic. It made vulnerability an important argument in social, political, and religious debates. The vulnerability paradox is particularly important in this context. This paradox holds that strategies designed to protect against certain dangers paradoxically intensify the damage if that damage nevertheless occurs. Theology can supplement this paradox, which is highly destructive, with a paradox that in turn promotes and strengthens life: the expenditure paradox that says that creation can occur by means of loss.

Divine Contradiction: some snippets

Abstract Two doctrines (or axioms) of christian theology sharply distinguish christian monotheism from its traditional monotheistic siblings (viz. jewish and islamic monotheism): the incarnation of God and the triunity of God. Both doctrines, as many have long observed, face a conspicuous so-called logical problem – namely, apparent contradiction. How should the strong appearance of such fundamental contradiction be explained? Beall's answer: the incarnation and trinity appear to be contradictory because God is a contradictory being – a being of whom some contradictions are true. The full truth of God is expressed only via contradiction, which is why the fundamental axioms of christian theology have long appeared to be contradictory. Divine Contradiction presents the target contradictory account of the trinity; its predecessor The Contradictory Christ presents the contradictory account of the incarnation.