Christian Apologetics Research Articles

Ramon Llull and the Communicating Vessels Between Catholicism and Occultism in Early Twentieth-Century France

In 1919, the Avant-garde poet Max Jacob translated Ramon Llull’s mystical work, the Llibre d’amic e amat (Book of the Lover and the Beloved). In 1921, another translation appeared, authored by the Hispanist and Catholic activist Marius André. The plural strands of modern literary reception of Llull have only been superficially addressed. At the beginning of the 20th century, both Catholic intellectuals and Occultist circles considered his mystical and evangelical endeavors to have extraordinary imaginative potential. Catholic and conservative spheres were prompted to justify the validity and orthodoxy of Lullian doctrines, and to define him as a model. Simultaneously, pseudo-Lullist sources praising his alchemical adventures and the fanciful plasticity of his symbology were noted by Jacob and the Parisian Surrealist circle. This article analyzes the context of two modern translations of the Llibre d’amic e amat (Book of the Lover and the Beloved), as well as the motivations of their translators, to assess the confluence of interests and themes within these traditions. It thus showcases the interdependency between Christian apologetics, often connected to the Catalan intellectuals who were publishing Llull’s works at the time, and an international current of eclectic pseudo-Lullism, spanning from at least the 17th century, that was still influential in the works of pansophists, alchemical authors and Surrealist writers, and that would inform present-day, creative reception of the philosopher.

Justin, Tatian and the Forging of a Christian Voice

Abstract This article considers the construction of the speaking subject in Justin’s First Apology and Tatian’s To the Greeks, two interlocking texts (often associated with the problematic genre of Christian apologetics). Bracketing questions of biographical reality, it explores the fictionalising techniques Justin and Tatian adopt to magnify their own authority, co-opt well-known narrative models (including martyrologies and imitatio Christi) in the service of their own self-fashioning. I take their autobiographies as stylised self-dramatisations, rather than guides to historical realities. There are strong parallels with the kind of self-modelling that we see in the works of pagan sophists of the era, notably Dio Chrysostom. Reading these two authors in this way blurs the sharp distinctions they seek to draw between Christian and pagan. It also requires a reading of their texts, in line with recent scholarship, as generically complex, sophisticated and absorbent, and open to the opportunistic appropriation of elements characteristic of pagan literature of the era. Foucault has argued that the voice of early Christianity was characterised by its confessional quality, which was new, confident and distinctive; this article argues, by contrast, that Justin and Tatian at any rate were intellectual bricoleurs and experimentalists, and had much more in common with their pagan peers.

Спиритуализм в истории русской религиозной мысли: ключевые оценки и трактовки

The article presents a critical review of the assessments of Modern Spiritualism in Russian philosophical historiography and positions it as a certain kind of natural theology. The author positions spiritualism as a special religious philosophy and outlines the reasons why it was considered as a practice without any philosophical significance. The article considers philosophical characteristics of Spiritualism given by Russian religious philosophers and offers some critical remarks on historiography's opinion about Spiritualism as a kind of "positivism". The author suggests, that spiritualism should be investigated in the perspective of the history of philosophical and theological thought of the early New Modern period. The article deals with analogies between the themes of early modern natural theology and the problems spiritualists were deeply interested in. It touches upon the discussions about the nature of the soul, especially, the questions of its corporeality and possible annihilation. Early modern discussions about witchcraft should be studied as a key issue, which links natural theology and spiritualism. The article proposes to compare seventeenth-century "witch-hunts", aimed to prove the existence of the spirit world, and nineteenth-century investigations of mediums. The importance of Leibnizianism and pneumatological teachings of the eighteenth century as precursors of spiritualist religious and philosophical thought is also pointed out. The article proposes to investigate Spiritualism not only as a subject for Orthodox apologetics’ criticism, but also as a special kind of Christian apologetics that emerged in the early Modern period and aimed at proving the immortality of the soul while refuting the arguments of materialist critics. Both Russian spiritualists and Russian philosophers (V.S. Soloviev, N.Y. Grot, L.M. Lopatin) were interested in "mediumistic phenomena". It is argued that the spiritualists of the late 19th century sought to overcome «positivist» limitations, and were not satisfied with the Kantian solution, which put a barrier to the cognition of the "real" world. The study of Spiritualism in the perspective of Christian natural theology makes it possible to grasp the main reason for the interest of Russian philosophers in Spiritualism and its’ "psychic phenomena" – the potential opportunity to find new arguments in favor of the immortality of the soul.

A Study on the First Christian Apologetic Book Written by a Korean, Introduction to Christianity(『파혹진션론』, 1897)

A Study on the First Christian Apologetic Book Written by a Korean, Introduction to Christianity(『파혹진션론』, 1897)

Resurgence of African Spiritualities in the New Prophetic Churches

The current developments in New Prophetic Churches (NPCs) raise the necessity for theological research. There are some practices within these formations, similar to African spiritualities. Spirituality is defined and some reflections on African spiritualities highlighted. This article identifies the NPCs and African spiritualities and how the two converge towards spiritual formation for Christians in these churches. Literature review and social media are used to research and conclude the research question, which is the resurgence of African spiritualities in faith formation of this faith community. Justification for this resurgence is based on both theological and etymological analyses of features, especially occultism and deliverance. Research finding is that many believers abandon Christian faith or opt to be opponents of the Gospel when promised prophecies are not fulfilled. Hence a conclusion is arrived at as an appeal for the return to Christian apologetics and vivacious socio-cultural contextual studies in the church. Robust dialogue with NPC leaders is long overdue, as at the end the local pastors are the ones engaged with damage control after the prophet has passed. Minimum standards should be suggested to minimize emotional damage in individuals and communities of faith, and discipleship into Christian faith needs to be heightened.

« Je vous dis que vous y gagnerez en cette vie ». Réflexions sur la stratégie apologétique dans le « pari » de Pascal

In Pascal’s Pensées, at the very end of the so-called “wager” fragment, we find this intriguing remark intended to win once and for all the whole conviction of the “libertine” the apologist is addressing to : “I will tell you that you will win thereby in this life”. This article endeavours to reconsider this remark seriously, as it has been somewhat neglected by the canonical commentaries on the “wager”. We begin by determining the reasons that lead the apologist to this final remark, then we attempt to define its meaning and scope in Pascal’s apologetic project. Next we seek to identify the “gain in this life” that is promised to the libertine who adopts a Christian lifestyle. This leads to study how Pascal analyses joy. To conclude we propose some more general thoughts about the strategies this fragment of Les Pensées suggests to today’s Christian apologetics.

The History of Orientalist Quran Translation

The orientalists' belief in the Qur'ān as a product of human intervention is one of the reasons why Western scholars of Islam study the Qur'ān. Then the crusades that took place between 1095 and 1291, also caused political and religious friction between Western Christians in Palestine and Islam, which had an impact on the spirit of Christian apologetics and their interest in translating the Qur'an in order to try to overthrow Islam with refutation and hatred of the Qur'an. The author focuses on analyzing the history of the emergence of orientalism to the process of translating the Qur'an which includes the periodisation of translation to the development of Qur'anic translation methods from time to time. This research is a type of qualitative research with a library research model using data sources in the form of books, encyclopaedias, dictionaries, and the like. The results of this research show that the study of Islam by orientalists in making translations of the Qur'an began with a Christianisation mission with the aim of insulting the Qur'an. But along with the times, the translation of the Qur'an changed its approach to become more scientific, critical and objective. So that some of the results of their research also contribute to Islam.

“God Is One” or “the One Is God” in Hellenistic Jewish and Greco-Roman Theology

Abstract “God is one” is the theological foundation of many of the world’s religions. The Greek version of this expression, heis theos, was especially significant to ancient religious development. Past scholarship has tended to place its emergence early, among the sixth century BCE Presocratic philosophers. In this article, I argue that the expression “God is one” in Greek likely develops later, in Jewish writings of the Hellenistic period. My work supports a minority opinion in the scholarship that attributions in second century Christian apologetics of this expression to Presocratics such as Xenophanes should not be relied upon. Rather, I suggest that the expression heis theos emerged in the context of second to first century BCE Alexandrian Jewish theology in conversation with ideas from Greek philosophy.

The manifestation of Christian attitudes in the anthropology of Marcus Aurelius

Introduction. The article is devoted to the study of the anthropological attitudes of Marcus Aurelius, formed as a result of the mutual influence of Roman Stoicism and early Christianity. The purpose of this work is to conduct a comparative analysis of the late Stoic and Christian axiology, ethics and demonstrate their relevance in the modern era of postmodernist value disorientation.Materials and Methods. The material of the study is the writings of Marcus Aurelius, the New Testament canonical epistles, the works of Christian apologists of the first centuries, as well as the works of contemporary domestic and foreign authors devoted to the spiritual situation in the Roman Empire during the reign of Marcus Aurelius, the moral foundations of Roman stoicism; anthropological, ethical ideas of the ancient philosopher associated with Christian thought; the views of early Christian authors on the worldview of the emperor and Roman stoicism. The author relied on civilizational and dialectical approaches, used methods: hermeneutic, analytical, synthesis, generalization, reconstruction of philosophical views, comparative historical.Results. As a result of the work done, it was found that the essentially Christian anthropological, axiological ideas of Marcus Aurelius (the essence of man, his path in history and posthumous fate, ethical constants) were formed as a result of a bilateral influence: stoicism on the formation of Christian doctrine in the I-II centuries, Christianity - on the worldview of the thinker. Being a persecutor of Christians, the philosopher on the throne unconsciously embodied the goals pursued by the young religion.Discussion and Conclusions. The author managed to carry out a comparative analysis of the anthropology, ethics and axiology of Marcus Aurelius and early Christianity. The study convincingly showed that the demarcation between ancient pagan antiquity and medieval Christianity accepted in philosophical science is conditional. The chronological definition of these historical periods is also conditional. This interpenetration of eras is confirmed by the enormous influence of Roman stoicism on the formation of Christian apologetics, as well as the anthropological, ethical and axiological attitudes of the Roman Stoic Marcus Aurelius congenial to Christianity.

Does evil imply God’s existence?

Evil is the mystery within Christian apologetics and systematic theology which just will not go away. A failure to truly understand its nature can act as an obstacle to most other areas of theological enquiry and can distort our notions of the character of God. This article explains and evaluates St Thomas Aquinas’s view that the existence of evil implies the basic goodness of the world and therefore indirectly assumes God’s existence too. It analyses Aquinas’s privation theory of evil and refusal to see this as the best possible material world. It concludes that, while his counterargument to evil is a powerful, thought-provoking one, it could be strengthened if he acknowledged this as the best possible material world.

Aristide's apology, its form and addressee

The object of the study is early Christian apologetics as a socio-cultural phenomenon. In modern science, the issue related to the audience of early Christian apologies is actively discussed. A number of apologies of the second century, as is known, are addressed directly to the rulers of the Roman Empire themselves. But is such an addressee genuine? Or is there a masterfully executed literary stylization in front of us? The subject of our research is the apology of Aristide. Aristide, according to ancient church historians, was the first apologist of Christianity who submitted his work to the Emperor Hadrian. However, the Syriac translation of the apology indicates the Emperor Antoninus Pius as the addressee. Thus, we are faced with two questions: 1) which of the two emperors was the addressee in the original apology; 2) is the imperial addressee real or is he a literary fiction? In the course of the study, the author came to the following conclusions. Firstly, we have no reason to prefer the Syriac version of the apology to all the data of the church-historical tradition. This data is confirmed by the Armenian translation of the apology. It should also be pointed out that the Syrian addressee contains a number of errors and resembles, rather, a later interpolation. Secondly, the content of the apology convinces that it is designed for an educated pagan, and not for a Christian. And there is every reason to believe that the Emperor Hadrian really acted as such an addressee. At the same time, it should be noted that the apology does not represent an official petition addressed to the emperor, we have before us a literary work written in the protreptic genre.

Newman on Art, Imagination, and the Classics: Callista Revisited

ABSTRACT: Despite its popular success during his lifetime, Newman's historical novel Callista (1855) gradually fell out of fashion and is nowadays among one of his most neglected works. Even critics who are sympathetic to Callista cannot help but betray the feeling that the merits (if any) of Newman's second novel are pastoral or apologetic, rather than literary, and that its place in Newman's opus is minor at best. This essay will argue that Callista has been both undeservedly neglected and significantly misunderstood. Callista is an important work, possessing notable aesthetic merits and highlighting Newman's remarkable breadth of literary appreciation. The novel weaves an impressive web of literary intertexts and exhibits a sensitive and informed cross-fertilization between early Christian apologetics, martyr narratives and the Romantic historical novel. Above all else, Callista is a text with a strong meta-artistic dimension. Meaning, it is in the very act of writing the novel that Newman addressed to the issue whether, as a recent convert to Roman Catholicism, he could reconcile or negotiate the classical (pagan) tradition with Christianity. This essay will show the degree to which Callista tracks Newman's developing views on art and imagination, in the early period of his conversion. An attendant hope of this essay is that it can also supply a redressive response to Newman's late complaint that, when it came to Callista , "Catholics have [n]ever done justice to [it]."

Pre-Revolutionary (before 1917) Russian Historiography of the Hasmonean State: Directions, Themes, Researches

In the paper Russian pre-revolutionary (before 1917) historiography of the Hasmonean state (167-63 BC) is considered. These works are divided by the author into four groups (categories) according to aims of the scholars within each group and their social-cultural environment. 1) “Theological” group is represented by the scientists from Orthodox seminaries and academies (T.I. Butkevich, I.G. Troitskiy, F.P. Arfaksadov et al.). These scholars referred to the history of Hasmoneans, which was already included in the historical narrative, for validate the biblical history within the Christian apologetics framework. 2) “Rational-critical” group is represented by the works of researchers who have received a university education and tended towards the materialistic concept of history. N.M. Nikolsky, A.I. Tyumenev and others embedded the content related to the Hasmonean state into formed by them rationalized concept of ancient and world history. 3) The “traditionalist” category merged articles and monographs of the bearers of the Jewish tradition, who had received both religious and secular education (S.M. Dubnov, M.Ya. Khashkes, Yu.I. Gessen, et al.). They referred to the Hasmonean history as to a period of Jewish independence and used it for the development of Jewish national secular identity in the Russian Empire at the beginning of the 20th century, as well as for the popularization of Jewish history as an organic part of the general historical process. 4) The “foreign” group, unlike the others, is distinguished not by the goal-setting principle, but by its generic characteristics. This group includes pre-revolutionary publications of foreign researchers in Russian (F.W. Farrar, E. Renan, J. Wellhausen, H. Hertz, et al.), which were most often used by representatives of other groups. As a result of the study, the conclusion is made about the greatest viability of the “rational-critical group”, which was developed during the Soviet period, while most representatives of other categories were excluded from the scientific environment, changed their views, or became part of the “bourgeois” historical science.

Spiritual principles of creativity: Personalistic aspect

The article attempts to interpret the concept of the spiritual through the use of personalistic methodological approach. Spiritual phenomena are considered in this case in comparison with the concept of creativity. It is argued that in the context of the Christian worldview, there is a clear connection between creativity and spiritual phenomena. Spirituality, being an a priori quality of any personality, can be understood both as a source, and as a mover, and as a result of its creative activity. The ideas about “positive” spirituality (correlated with the synergy of God and man), and about “negative” spirituality (correlating with “the arbitrariness” of godless personalities), the opposite nature of which is manifested in the difference between the products of human creative activity, are analyzed. Attention is focused on the fact that today spiritual and moral issues are often realized by us either poorly or not at all, which is caused by the blurring of the concept of the spiritual and the oblivion of the simplest truth, according to which morality, in order to avoid relativization, must have a solid religious philosophical foundation. The authors come to the conclusion that modern people’s unawareness of their own cognitive limitations, multiplied by diligently cultivated immoderate pride, does not allow them to adequately compare their total intelligence and spiritual and creative potential with the extensive spiritual experience of the most worthy representatives of the past, therefore, today it becomes necessary to renew Christian apologetics and widespread religious education.

Phenomenology as Apologetics

In this article, we analyse the relation of philosophy and theology in the work of Jean‑Luc Marion in order to be able to see not only how the phenomenology of givenness can serve as a “new apologetics” for theology, but also how Marion’s phenomenology itself, in its historical development and in its core principle and method, is influenced and changed by theological phenomena. We present three ways of describing the relation, tension, mutual influence and separation of philosophy and theology: firstly, in line with Pascal’s distinction between the orders of reason and of the heart; secondly, in phenomenology, in terms of indications to the effect that there can be a phenomenon of revelation in the mode of possibility that is distinguished from the phenomenon of Revelation in theology in the mode of historicity; and thirdly, by analogy with Christian apologetics. In particular, we analyse this third dimension, putting forward the thesis that Marion’s phenomenology itself has some characteristics of the Christian apologetics he describes. We try to demonstrate this interpretation of his phenomenology in its key dimensions, such as the counter-method and descriptions of the phenomena of love and revelation, which constitute the culmination of the phenomenology of givenness, although at the same time, as it were, its limit, crossing over into the theological order.

Is Christianity Childish?

In his 1952 essay “On Three Ways of Writing for Children”, C. S. Lewis discusses three approaches to writing children’s literature and defends “that particular type of children’s story which is dearest to my own taste, the fantasy or fairy tale” from the charge that it is “childish”. In this paper, I define Christian apologetics as “the art and science of persuasively communicating and advocating Christian spirituality across spiritualties, through the responsible use of rhetoric, as being objectively beautiful, good and true/reasonable” and see how Lewis’ advice about the rhetoric of children’s stories can be generalized and applied to the discipline of Christian apologetics. In particular, many atheists charge Christian Spirituality with being childish. For example, British atheist Richard Dawkins says that religious people “have their Bronze Age myths, medieval superstitions and childish wishful thinking” (Dawkins, Scientific American). Describing his own childhood, Dawkins says: “I think I did believe it up to the age of eight or nine, when preachers said if you really, really pray for something it can happen. Even moving mountains, I believed it could really happen... I grew up. I put away childish things.” (Dawkins, “Claims Fairy Tales Are Harmful To Children”) In this paper I explore how the dialectical moves made by Lewis in “On Three Ways of Writing for Children” can shape a rational response to such rhetoric.

From an Apology for Catholicism to Theological Modernism: The Principle of Development in Alfred Loisy’s Thought

This paper aims to show the reasons why Alfred Loisy’s idea to develop an apology for Chri­stianity was unsuccessful and led to his transition to the modernist position. It explores theological and fundamental issues underlying his ambitious program. Firstly, it discusses the concept of modernism, having in mind that Loisy himself opposed the accusations of his following modernism. Secondly, it syn­thetically presents the context and characteristics of Loisy’s works to properly understand his idea of Christian apologetics. The subsequent section analyses Loisy’s most important assumptions and the way he formulated his apologia, focusing on the issue of historical criticism and his application of John Henry Newman’s idea of development to the history of religion. These analyses allow us to conclude that by applying the historical-critical method, Loisy did not avoid adapting incorrect philosophical assumptions and improper application of Newman’s development of Christian doctrine to his reflections on the hi­story of religion.

The Age of Pious Erudition: Kircher’s Critics in Context

This essay argues that Kircher and his critics can best be understood in the context of a distinct epoch, “the age of pious erudition”, defined by the alliance of historical criticism and sacred history. It began at the turn of the seventeenth century when Joseph Scaliger and Isaac Casaubon applied the historicizing methods of classical philology to the study of ancient Judaism and the early Church, and it gave way a century later, when historical criticism belatedly revealed itself as a threat rather than a boon to Christian apologetics. Eventually, pious erudition brought about its own demise, but that was a cumulative process that unfolded over a century, rather than a dramatic rupture.

Religious Books in the Reconstructed Fond in the Library of the Orenburg Theological Seminary

The article is devoted to the library of the Orenburg Theological Seminary, which was lost in 1918. It was based on the books of spiritual and religious content. The purpose of the library reconstruction is to create its approximate catalog at the time of the seminary closure. The article describes only that sections of the catalog that reflect physically preserved books: Holy Scripture, Dogmatic Theology, Homiletics, Pastoral Theology, Moral Theology, Asceticism, Ecumenism, Christian apologetics, Schismatic studies, history of non-Christian religions, history of the Russian Orthodox Church, etc. Only 35 copies have been survived to this day. All of them are monuments of book culture and give an idea of both the representativeness of the lost library itself and the preparation of clergymen for missionary activity in the Orenburg Orthodox Diocese.

Telling a Better Story: How to Talk about God in a Skeptical Age by Joshua D. Chatraw

Reviewed by: Telling a Better Story: How to Talk about God in a Skeptical Age by Joshua D. Chatraw Mary Sue Dehmlow Dreier Telling a Better Story: How to Talk about God in a Skeptical Age. By Joshua D. Chatraw. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan Reflective, 2020. 228 pp. Joshua Chatraw presents an approach to apologetics shaped by patient listening to the stories of secular people in order to enter into authentic dialogue with them about God. He contrasts this with more familiar "building block" apologetics that logically leverage abstract ideas to make a rational case for the gospel. His goal is to help readers become better gospel storytellers within today's late modern cultural milieu of skepticism where familiar ways of sharing the gospel do not make sense within current scripts and shifting plausibility structures. [End Page 106] Citing famous Christian storytellers like C. S. Lewis and J.R.R. Tolkien, Chatraw argues that the Christian story is deeply ingrained in our human "storying nature." He further asserts that the gospel, embedded in the unbeliever's own metanarratives, "better" addresses the fears, anxieties, and yearnings of people today than the secular narratives that bombard us every day. This book is divided into three parts, in which Chatraw provides an interpretation of today's secular culture (Part I), aptly identifies and discusses five cultural assumptions about Christianity (Part II), and helpfully addresses prevalent objections to the Christian story (Part III). The lens he employs is an "inside out" apologetic. He suggests we move from "inside" peoples' own secular stories and "out" to the Christian narrative that is both connected to and distinct from those stories. I particularly appreciate Chatraw's insistence on humble and sensitive listening to the stories of those around us for pathways to substantial conversations about God. He frames "inside out" apologetics as an incarnational "apologetics of love" (170) in which we come alongside others and step into the stories that shape their imaginations. "The goal is to embody the truth and beauty of the gospel—the ultimate aim of any truly Christian apologetics" (21). Chatraw's refreshing approach to apologetics winsomely weaves together Scripture and an eclectic cast of conversation partners for each chapter—classical and contemporary theologians, storytellers, fictional characters, musicians, poets, etc. With short, readable chapters, this book would be accessible to individual readers as well as a variety of lay audiences. It encourages and equips Christians to engage in conversations about God within the challenges of today's daunting secularism. Coming out of a Baptist background (both his MDiv and his PhD are from Baptist seminaries) and serving in non-denominational Christian outreach, Chatraw suggests throughout the book that this "inside out" approach to unbelievers might invite them to "try on" the gospel. The notion of "trying on" the gospel signals the decision theology that implicitly undergirds the book and is explicitly addressed, albeit briefly, in his appeal for a decision for Jesus in the Conclusion. The proclaimed Word of God as the means of grace and [End Page 107] the activity of the Holy Spirit calling, gathering, enlightening, and sanctifying are mostly absent from the book. In order fruitfully to engage this book, Lutherans will have to simultaneously address our skeptical age as well as decision theology. These could be important and empowering missional discussions. This book could therefore be productively used by such groups as congregational evangelism committees, outreach teams, and small study groups in which Lutheran leaders are prepared to address both its cultural and theological issues for the sake of enhancing participation in God's mission. Mary Sue Dehmlow Dreier St. Paul, Minnesota Copyright © 2022 Johns Hopkins University Press and Lutheran Quarterly, Inc.