Christaller's Central Place Theory Research Articles

Scenario modelling and forecasting of spatial transformation in the Russian catering market

The COVID-19 pandemic and spatial peculiarities exacerbate the imbalance in the development of the catering market in Russia. The paper reveals the problems of spatial transformation of the market in Russian regions. Analysis of the theoretical foundations of the research showed that the existing methodological approaches neglect the spatial aspect of this transformation. Methodologically, the study relies on theoretical provisions of regional and spatial economics, including Perroux's growth pole theory, Christaller's central place theory, and Friedmann's core-periphery model. Using the methods of spatial autocorrelation analysis, regression modelling and ARIMA-forecasting, the authors develop a system-based approach to modelling and forecasting the processes of spatial transformation of the public catering market. The research specifies the main methods for forecasting the development indicators of the market, as well as their advantages and disadvantages;it also substantiates the need to apply spatial autocorrelation analysis for assessing the distinguishing features of the market transformation and proposes a methodology for its implementation. The authors established a downward trend in the catering market differentiation and an upward trend in the number of regions similar in terms of their development. Regression analysis helped identify the major factors affecting the catering market's turnover, such as GRP and average per capita income of the population. ARIMA-modelling of these factors' dynamics allowed designing forecast scenarios for the development of the Russian catering market until 2022. Based on the research results, the study outlines the development prospects of the Russian catering market in the context of a worsening epidemiological situation.

Measuring the spatial hierarchical urban system in China in reference to the Central Place Theory

Dynamic urbanization processes have caused great changes on China's urban spatial pattern and hierarchical structure in the past few decades. In this study, we propose new metrics for measuring the pattern of urban land by considering both, spatial distribution and hierarchical structure of the urban system. The metrics are deduced from Christaller's Central Place Theory and allow evaluating the spatial pattern of urban land based on three indicators: azimuth heterogeneity, distance heterogeneity and quantity heterogeneity of subordinate urban patches around the corresponding higher-rank urban patch. For monitoring the evolution of the spatial hierarchical urban system, we apply these metrics on China's urban lands for the time period of 1990 until 2015 based on provincial administrative units. The results show that (1) at the national level, we find hierarchical spatial urban systems similar to the ideal pattern suggested by the Central Places Theory in the eastern and central regions; (2) the hierarchical urban systems develop between 1990 until 2015 in most areas in the opposite direction of the ideal pattern suggested by the Central Place Theory; however, this tendency is more evident in the eastern and central regions than in western inland regions. Besides, we find underdeveloped urban systems, i.e. patterns that have some missing high levels in the hierarchical gradation and over developed urban systems, i.e. patterns that have some missing low levels in the hierarchical gradation. We discuss alternative urban systems for explaining the inapplicability of the Central Places Theory in some examples.

Edgar Kant, Estonian geography and the reception of Walter Christaller's central place theory, 1933–1960

As a result of the First World War several new nation-states emerged on the map of Europe. One of them was the Republic of Estonia, emerging from the ruins of the Russian Empire. As Estonians had never had their own state before, the establishment of the parliamentary republic, its institutions and a national identity was a big challenge for its small elite. First and foremost, the ambition was to do things differently from the previous rulers. The Estonian economic geographer Edgar Kant played an important role in the development of his country between 1920 and 1940. His geography was politically motivated, innovative and pragmatic as the rapid development of the state required new theories and methods. The methodological basis for Kant's ‘innovative geography’ became Walter Christaller's central place theory, and he was the first in the world to understand the importance of applying it in empirical research, doing so in the 1930s in the reform of Estonian rural municipalities. In September 1944, Edgar Kant fled from Estonia to Lund and Christaller's theory spread more widely through Kant's interactions with Torsten Hägerstrand in Sweden and later Edward Ullman and Brian Berry in the United States. This paper reviews the relatively unknown geography, and the complicated life, of Edgar Kant, who, it is argued, strongly influenced the trajectory of the triumph of the ‘new geography’ in the 1950s. Through this example it will be shown how peripheral actors and places can play key roles in innovation diffusion and intellectual history.

The Revaluation of the Christaller's Central Place Theory and Three Distribution Principle, in Relation of the Diversity in Spatial Structure

The Revaluation of the Christaller's Central Place Theory and Three Distribution Principle, in Relation of the Diversity in Spatial Structure

Sub-regional service centres in reality and regional planning in Poland / Podregionalne ośrodki obsługi w sferze realnej i planowaniu regionalnym w Polsce

Sub-regional centres are defined as towns where the services of the sub-regional level are concentrated. In Poland these are such services that can be located in several towns in a voivodeship (region), but not in every capital of a poviat (county). The transformation of civilization has influenced changes in Christaller’s model of settlement network, but re-gularities are still valid. Models derived from Christaller's Central Place Theory have been used not only in describing reality, but also in planning, e.g. in Germany. In Poland, centres established in the spatial development plans for voivodeships are not used as a tool for the localization of services. The issue of sub-regional centres in Poland defined by sets of services has not been researched recently. Also, the role of a hierarchical service model in regional policy has not yet been researched. Thus, the objectives of the presented research were to verify: 1) whether any regularities of a hierarchical model for the localization of services exist at the sub-regional level in Poland, 2) to what extent regional planning in Poland operates according to a hierarchical model of service. Methods of research included: identification and classification of sub-regional centres (apart from metropolitan areas), which were examined on the basis of four kinds of services, and analysis of spatial development plans for voivodeships. Research shows that some towns can be identified as complete or incomplete sub-regional centres (depending on the extent of equipment provided), and that the levels of hierarchical centres established in the regional plans fail to specify whether those centres are in fact service centres.

The Christaller's Formation Mechanism for the Ordered Nanopores of Anodic Alumina Template.

The highly ordered alumina pores were prepared via a two-step anodic oxidation process in the electrolyte of oxalic acid. Five different formation mechanisms of the alumina nanopores are summarized. On the basis of those models, combined with the Christaller's central place theory, a Christaller's formation mechanism of the alumina nanopores is proposed for the first time. It is the mechanical stresses between those pores during the corrosion expansion process that determines the morphology of alumina pores. Anodic oxidation time is too longer, the regular arrangements of pores will be damaged. This mechanism will provide the model analysis and reference value for studies of the formation mechanisms of alumina nanopores.

Application of the L-index to the Delineation of Market Areas of Retail Businesses

As delineating market areas of retail businesses has become an interesting topic in marketing field, Lee and Lee recently suggested a noteworthy method, which applied the hydrological analysis of geographical information system (GIS), based on Christaller's central place theory. They used a digital elevation model (DEM) which inverted the kernel density of retail businesses, which was measured by using bandwidths of pre-determined 500, 1000 and 5000 m, respectively. In fact, their method is not a fully data-based approach in that they used pre-determined kernel bandwidths, however, this paper has been planned to improve Lee and Lee's method by using a kind of data-based approach of the L-index that describes clustering level of point feature distribution. The case study is implemented to automobile-related retail businesses in Seoul, Korea with selected Kernel bandwidths, 1211.5, 2120.2 and 7067.2 m from L-index analysis. Subsequently, the kernel density is measured, the density DEM is created by inverting it, and boundaries of market areas are extracted. Following the study, analysis results are summarized as follows. Firstly, the L-index can be a useful tool to complement the Lee and Lee's market area analysis method. At next, the kernel bandwidths, pre-determined by Lee and Lee, cannot be uniformly applied to all kinds of retail businesses. Lastly, the L-index method can be useful for analyzing the space structure of market areas of retail businesses, based on Christaller's central place theory.

Delimiting boundaries of market areas of central places using the density of retail facilities in an urban space

When Christaller's central place theory is applied to an anisotropic urban space, the hierarchical structure of the central places in hexagon shapes does not appear. Thus, we have difficulties delimiting boundaries of market areas of central places. In order to overcome this limitation, we suggest the geographic information system (GIS) method based on a hydrological modelling which uses raster density and apply the method to the retail facilities of Seoul, Korea. Kernel density function is used to measure the density of retail facilities, and search radii are set up as 500, 1000, and 5000 m by considering the size of the neighbourhood unit, the neighbourhood district, and the sub-centre region. As a result, we confirm market areas of central places with irregular shapes, which become nested in those of higher order central places. This means that central places in an urban space have the hierarchy, which is the core concept of Christaller's theory. In order to evaluate the result of delimiting market areas, we suggest the normalized internal traffic volume ratio index (NTI). The average NTIs of the market areas of central places are higher than those of administrative units, and thus, we conclude that market areas of central places are effectively delimited and the GIS method based on a hydrological modelling is useful.

'The Golden Age of Local Banking': The Hungarian Banking Network in the Early 20th Century (from Unit Banking to Branch Banking - A Financial Geographical View)

This paper examines the impact of the Hungarian banking on regional and urban development in the early 20th century, when local banks were important territorial elements of the financial space developing close links to regional economic structures. The basic concept of the study is that there is closer connection between not only the banking sector and the economy as a whole, but between the banking sector and urban development as well. This is coincidental with the argument of the American Historical Geography School, which says that the features of the urban network are in strong correlation with the spatial structure of banking (Conzen, 1977). We considered the spatial breakdown of capital flows as one of the most important indicators of regional and urban transformation (Gal, 2005). The Hungarian banking looks back to its legacy of more than 160 years. Examining the impact of the banking on regional and urban development is reasonable in the context of the second half of the 19th century, since Hungary developed an extensive financial with a well researchable statistical database (Vargha, 1913). The basic idea of our research is that the banking had greater importance in (local) economic development, than in our time. This argument coincided with the argument of the American Historical Geographical School saying that the features of the urban network are in strong correlation with the spatial-regional structure of the banking and the diffusion of financial innovations. There was also a similar situation in the mid-19th century Britain, when the earlier fragmented regional economies with their independent provincial banking centres were moving towards greater integration. During this market concentration the regionally fragmented economies bound together by metropolitan centres dominated the flows of financial capital and by the increasing centralization of the largest clearing banks having headquarters in London (Conzen, 1977; Black, 1989). On the one hand, the intermediate role of banks was more significant in economic modernization since the provision and reallocation of the necessary capital resources was channelled through the banking system. This also meant that the spread of financial innovations was quicker and more comprehensive than other economic innovations (Gerschenkron, 1966; Good, 1973). The paper examines the spatial breakdown of savings and loans and listing the various factors that play important role in the territorial configuration of bank centres. A special significance is attributed to the comparative analysis of the banking function of cities by the fact that in peripheral situation the characteristics of modernization and capitalist development are almost exclusively connected with the urban network. It is also argued that regional inequalities were very much determined by economic, especially banking functions of the urban-network.The historical evolution of the Hungarian banking system, despite it has developed in a latecomer country concerning the phases of industrialisation, has gone through the similar development stages of the modern financial than the more advanced economies (Martin, 1994). With the earliest stage of industrialisation the regionally-locally based, bank-oriented system operated in Hungary until the end of WWI, based on the extensive network of locally based banks using local sources of capital accumulation. During the interwar period it was replaced by the or capital market-oriented stage, in which the banking became more centralised into the capital city of Budapest and the national market incorporated the local, regional banks setting up the centralised national branch network. The paper verifies that predominance of Budapest is not only a direct consequence of the territorial and capital loss following the World War I, rather the market concentration processes evolving since the late 19th century onward determined it. The paper examines this process introducing the first phase of transition from the locally based unit bank towards the branch banking which based on the expanding affiliates and branch networks of the largest country banks. Besides studying the regional characteristics of local money-markets on the basis of the territorial breakdown of banking aggregates, the paper analyses the urban network of the early 20th century according to the cities' banking function in order to identify those groups of towns together with their hierarchical ranks, which became the driving force of modernization, as well as those that played a less determinant role in economic development (Gal, 2005). This paper uses the method of Christaller's central-place theory (1933) in order to define the central-place functions of Hungarian cities based on banking aggregates (deposits and assets).

The Spatial Economy: Cities, Regions, and International Trade

Книга «Пространственная экономика – города, регионы и международная торговля» рассматривает экономику с точки зрения экономической географии – через определение, где и почему развился тот или иной вид экономической деятельности. Это новая глава в развитии экономической географии. Авторами предлагаются новые методы для моделирования, получившие начало в теориях экономического роста, международной торговли и промышленной организации. Более того, через многофакторный анализ «эффект повышения отдачи - транспортные издержки - движение продуктивных факторов» открываются возможности для новой экономической географии при решении проблем в городской, региональной и международной экономике.

From order to chaos: The impact of educational telecommunications on post-secondary education

The convergence of digital communications technologies is changing the nature of the relationships between post-secondary institutions, their students, and the private sector. The current predictable and ordered world of inter-institutional relationships is breaking down, to be replaced by one of perpetual change. Contemporary relationships can be modeled using Christaller's central place theory. On the other hand, we must turn to chaos theory for clues as to how institutions will be operating in an environment characterised by complexity and constant flux.

Rural Services, Rural Infrastructure and Regional Development in India

This paper analyses the spatial distribution of rural services in selected regions of three states in India (Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, and Tamil Nadu), based on data collected over three decades. In spite of economic disparities between regions, Christaller's Central Place Theory provides a framework in which to examine demographic, functional and spatial characteristics of settlements in these regions. In all regions, there has been a tremendous improvement in rural service provision, since the late 1960s, especially in smaller sized settlements. Over time, more complex services in particular, have become more widely available. In Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu, the introduction of new agricultural technologies was largely responsible for stimulating such improvements, whereas in Maharashtra they were a consequence of urban industrial development in a metropolitan city. The government played a critical role in this process during the earlier stages of development of the regions, which facilitated greater involvement of the private sector at later stages. The changes in rural service provision are further examined in the context of decentralized service centre planning in India. The analysis suggests how the concepts and methodologies employed in this study might provide the basis for a more integrated regional approach to planning and policy formulation for rural service provision at the district level in India.

Christaller's central place postulates

The purpose of this paper is to trace back and comment on five postulates of Christaller's central place theory: the homogeneity of geographical space, economic rationality of agents, existence of scale economies, existence of agglomeration economies, and interdependence between goods. The conclusion of the discussion is that the lack of an explicit axiomatic approach prevents the theory from being consistent and fully immune to empirically based puzzling comments.

立地-配分モデルによるクリスタラー中心地理論の定式化の試み

本稿は,立地-配分モデルを用いてクリスタラー中心地理論における供給原理の定式化を試みるものである.クリスタラー中心地理論では, (a) すべての消費者がすべての財を入手しうる, (b) 財は中心地によって包括的に保有されるという2つの制約条件,および財の到達範囲の概念を鍵として中心地システムが構築される.こうした特性は,立地-配分モデルにおけるカバー問題としての性格を有している.そこで本稿では,供給原理を集合カバー問題として定義し,理論の仮定を便宜的に満たした仮想地域にモデルを適用した.その結果,階層を下位から上位へと構築する方法では,モデルは供給原理に基づく中心地システムを正しく導出するものの,逆の構築方法では異なるシステムを導いた.ゆえに後者の方法については,さらに,最適な階層構造の形成を加味した配置原理の解釈が必要となることが,両構築方法の結果の比較より示唆される.

SETTLEMENT, POPULATION AND LAND USE ANALYSES OF THE NORTH CHINA PLAIN USING SHUTTLE IMAGING RADAR-A DATA∗

Shuttle Imaging Radar-A data are employed to study the settlement, population and land use in the Baoding and Dezhou areas of the North China Plain. By applying nearest neighbor and quadrat analyses, the settlements are found to exhibit a mixed random-clustering pattern which defied the application of Christaller's central place theory. The distinctly visible boundaries from the images permitted accurate estimation of population in both areas. The linear land use forms, notably transportation lines, could also be accurately mapped; the Chinese practice of lake reclamation was also revealed. It is concluded that SIR-A data are useful for much human geography research.

Break up your lectures: or Christaller sliced up

Abstract Expounding for an hour is, we argue, a relatively poor way of teaching a large group during a ‘lecture’ period. Problems with such conventional lectures are discussed and a method outlined which overcomes some of these problems. In this method, which we shall call structured lectures, the lecture period is divided up into segments. Only some of these segments involve the lecturer talking. In others students discuss topics or complete exercises set by the teacher. An example of such a lecture on aspects of Christaller's central place theory is described both to indicate how to use structured lectures and to discuss the issues that teachers have to confront to adopt this strategy successfully.

Presidential address self-organization in spatial systems: Evolutionary problems for regional science

The concept of self-organization is proposed as a framework for the dynamic extension of Christaller's central place theory. The advantages of the concept of self-organization for the field of Regional Science are enunciated and some examples of its use are provided.

SELF‐ORGANIZATION IN SPATIAL SYSTEMS: EVOLUTIONARY PROBLEMS FOR REGIONAL SCIENCE

ABSTRACT The concept of self‐organization is proposed as a framework for the dynamic extension of Christaller's central place theory. The advantages of the concept of self‐organization for the field of Regional Science are enunciated and some examples of its use are provided.

The urban systems of medieval Mali

Urbanism in medieval Mali was closely connected with long-distance trade but conforms only partly to Vance's mercantile model. Local periodic markets also existed, arranged in a pattern similar to that outlined in Skinner's modification of Christaller's central place theory, although they were not always connected with cities and were subsidiary to the long-distance trading system. Many aspects of urbanism in medieval Mali, however, had little to do either with long-distance trade or withlocal marketing and may be analysed more lucidly by invoking cultural phenomena than through established models of urban systems.

The Orders of Central Functions and the Hierarchical Central Places System

Vining argued that a hierarchy of central places did not exist and verified that the class system of central places derived from a previous partitioning of an array which appeared as differentiation along a continuum. However, between 1958 and 1967, a number of important papers were published by Berry, Garrison, Barnumn, and Tennant. These papers dealt with taxonomic methods for the empirical study of the hierarchical class system and the extention of central place theory into a more general theory of tertiary activities, Berry's central place theory.In his Snohomish County study, the hierarchical class system of central places was shown to follow from the class system of central functions on the basis of their ranked threshold populations. Furthermore, in his southwest Iowa study, the orders of entry of central functions into central places were presented, using factor analysis. Berry has introduced the concept of threshold as the basis of grouping of central functions and has attemped to reform Christaller's central place theory without the assumption of uniformity concerning purchasing power which was basic to a hexagonal complementary region. The argument requires the concepts of range and threshold which are related to Christaller's concepts of outer and inner limits of the range of a good respectively. But it appears that Berry's central place theory depends on the incorrect interpretation of Christaller's theory. In Berry's theory, the development of a hierarchy depends on the existence of certain range of a good (the trade area of a marginal hierarchical good), related to the threshold size which is the minimum amounts of purchasing power for the supply of a marginal hierarchical good, similar to the lower limit of the range of a good. On the other hand, in Christaller's theory, it depends on the size of a complementary region related to the outer limit of the range of a marginal hierarchical good, which is based on the concept of a hexagonal complementary region. The hierarchical structure, the relation between the orders of central functions and the levels of central places, does not depend on the concepts of range and threshold, but on the concepts of range and complementary region.In agreement with this interpretation of the hierarchical structure, the aim of this paper is to propose the procedure for grouping of 60 central functions by factor analysis, and to show that the orders of central functions are distinct from the groups of central functions.The methods of analysis and the results are as follows.(1) As the results of applications of factor analysis to three kinds of data matrices consisting of the incidence matrix, the establishment matrix, and the central place matrix, it is only in the factor analysis of the central place matrix that factors reveal clearly a distinctive factor pattern. In the central place matrix, sizes of central places are ranked in the column on the base of numbers of functions performed and 60 central functions are ranked in the rows.(2) The factor analysis of the central place matrix with 60 variables (central functions) yields three factors which indicate the presence of three orders of central functions. i.e. lower-middle-higher central functions. In spite of the extractions of three factors, all central functions can not be grouped in three class systems by factor lordings or correlations of 60 variables with each of three factors, for some central functions are under the influence of two or three factors.(3) Similarly, the factor analysis of the central place matrix with 48 variables (sizes of central places) yields three factors which indicate the presence of three levels of central places, i.e. lower-middle-higher central places, and all central functions can be grouped in eight class systems.