Choline Acetyltransferase-positive Neurons Research Articles

A novel cholinergic projection from the lateral parabrachial nucleus and its role in methamphetamine-primed conditioned place preference.

Drug relapse is a big clinical challenge in the treatment of addiction, but its neural circuit mechanism is far from being fully understood. Here, we identified a novel cholinergic pathway from choline acetyltransferase-positive neurons in the external lateral parabrachial nucleus (eLPBChAT) to the GABAergic neurons in the central nucleus of the amygdala (CeAGABA) and explored its role in methamphetamine priming-induced reinstatement of conditioned place preference. The anatomical structure and functional innervation of the eLPBChAT–CeAGABA pathway were investigated by various methods such as fluorescent micro-optical sectioning tomography, virus-based neural tracing, fibre photometry, patch-clamp and designer receptor exclusively activated by a designer drug. The role of the eLPBChAT–CeAGABA pathway in methamphetamine relapse was assessed using methamphetamine priming-induced reinstatement of conditioned place preference behaviours in male mice. We found that the eLPBChAT neurons mainly projected to the central nucleus of the amygdala. A chemogenetic activation of the eLPBChAT neurons in vitro or in vivo triggered the excitabilities of the CeAGABA neurons, which is at least in part mediated via the cholinergic receptor system. Most importantly, the chemogenetic activation of either the eLPBChAT neurons or the eLPBChAT neurons that project onto the central nucleus of the amygdala decreased the methamphetamine priming-induced reinstatement of conditioned place preference in mice. Our findings revealed a previously undiscovered cholinergic pathway of the eLPBChAT–CeAGABA and showed that the activation of this pathway decreased the methamphetamine priming-induced reinstatement of conditioned place preference.

Optogenetic stimulation of cholinergic neuronal endings in the celiac‐superior mesenteric ganglion complex suppresses inflammation in murine endotoxemia

The vagus nerve plays a key role in the regulation of inflammation within the inflammatory reflex (Annu Rev Immunol, 2018, 36:783). In this major physiological neuroimmunoregulatory mechanism, efferent vagus nerve cholinergic axons interact with catecholaminergic neurons of the splenic nerve in the celiac‐superior mesenteric ganglion (CSMG) complex(Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 2020, 117(47):29803).Previous studies utilizing electrical and optogenetic neuromodulation have demonstrated that vagus nerve cholinergic signalling suppresses pro‐inflammatory cytokine levels during endotoxemia and other inflammatory conditions. However, the specific role of cholinergic axonal terminals in the CSMG complex in this regulation remained enigmatic. To provide insight, we investigated the effect of selective optogenetic stimulation of cholinergic neuronal endings in the CSMG complex on cytokine and chemokine levels during murine endotoxemia. We used transgenic female 10–14‐week‐old mice expressing channelrhodopsin 2 coupled with yellow fluorescent protein on cholinergic, i.e., choline acetyltransferase positive neurons (ChAT‐ChR2‐eYFP). Anesthetized mice were subjected to abdominal surgery and the CSMG complex was localized medial to the upper pole left kidney and along the branch of the abdominal aorta, above the left renal vein. Blue laser light stimulation at 473nm was delivered in square pulses for 10mins at 20Hz, 25% duty cycle through an optic fiber cannula placed in contact with the CSMG complex. 30mins following optogenetic stimulation or sham stimulation, lipopolysaccharide (0.25mg/kg) was injected intraperitoneally and 90mins later mice were euthanized and blood, and spleen were collected and processed for cytokine and chemokines. Optogenetic stimulation of the CSMG complex in ChAT‐ChR2 mice (n=14) suppressed serum pro‐inflammatory cytokines and chemokines compared with sham stimulation (n=13), including TNF(401.7 ± 102.9 pg/ml vs 766.1 ± 207.2 pg/ml; P<0.0001) and MIP‐1α (6,523 ± 3,041 pg/ml vs 10,672 ± 3,915 pg/ml, P=0.0066), while the serum levels of the anti‐inflammatory cytokine IL‐10 were significantly increased (30,779 ± 10,035 pg/ml vs 22,979 ± 9,669 pg/ml, P=0.0427). There was also a significant reduction in splenic TNF levels in the stimulated vs the sham group(P=0.0023). Of note, optogenetic stimulation of the CSMG complex in littermate mice that do not express ChR2 on cholinergic neurons did not alter serum and splenic cytokine levels. These results provide the first experimental evidence that selective stimulation of cholinergic neuronal endings in the CSMG complex attenuates cytokine and chemokine levels. Future studies examining the specific contribution of vagal and sympathetic preganglionic cholinergic neurons in the CSMG complex in the regulation of immune responses will be instrumental for developing new targeted therapeutic anti‐inflammatory approaches.

Combined Treatment with Bojungikgi-Tang and Riluzole Regulates Muscle Metabolism and Dysfunction in the hSOD1G93A Mouse Model.

The progressive neurodegenerative disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), is characterized by muscle weakness and atrophy owing to selective motoneuron degeneration. The anti-glutamatergic drug, riluzole (RZ), is the standard-of-care treatment for ALS. Bojungikgi-tang (BJIGT), a traditional herbal formula, improves motor function and prolongs the survival of mice with ALS. As ALS is a multicomplex disease, effective therapies must target multiple mechanisms. Here, we evaluated the efficacy of a BJIGT/RZ combination (5-week treatment) in 2-month-old hSOD1G93A mice with ALS. We performed quantitative polymerase chain reaction, Western blotting, immunohistochemistry, and enzyme activity assays. BJIGT/RZ significantly attenuated inflammation, autophagy, and metabolic and mitochondrial dysfunctions in the gastrocnemius (GC) compared with the control. It reduced the mRNA and protein levels of muscle denervation-related proteins and creatine kinase levels. The total creatine level was significantly higher in the BJIGT/RZ-treated GC. Moreover, after BJIGT/RZ treatment, the number of Nissl-stained motoneurons and choline acetyl transferase-positive neurons in the spinal cord significantly increased via the regulation of proinflammatory cytokines. Collectively, the BJIGT/RZ treatment was superior to single-drug treatments in alleviating multiple ALS-related pathological mechanisms in the ALS mouse model. Overall, BJIGT can serve as a dietary supplement and be combined with RZ to achieve superior therapeutic effects against ALS.

MicroRNA miR-155 Activity in Mouse Choline Acetyltransferase-Positive Neurons Is Critical for the Rate of Early and Late Paraplegia After Transient Aortic Cross-Clamping.

Aortic aneurism open repair surgery can cause spinal cord (SC) injury with 5–15% of patients developing paraparesis or paraplegia. Using a mouse model of transient aortic cross-clamping (ACC), we have previously found that the expression of proinflammatory microRNA miR-155 increases in motoneurons (MNs) and endothelial cells (ECs) of ischemic SCs, and that global miR-155 deletion decreases the percentage of paraplegia by 37.4% at 48-h post-ACC. Here, we investigated the cell-specific contribution of miR-155 in choline acetyltransferase-positive (ChAT+) neurons (that include all MNs of the SC) and ECs to SC injury after ACC. Mice lacking miR-155 in ChAT+ neurons (MN-miR-155-KO mice) developed 24.6% less paraplegia than control mice at 48-h post-ACC. In contrast, mice lacking miR-155 in ECs (ECs-miR-155-KO mice) experienced the same percentage of paraplegia as control mice, despite presenting smaller central cord edema. Unexpectedly, mice overexpressing miR-155 in ChAT+ neurons were less likely than control mice to develop early paraplegia during the first day post-ACC, however they reached the same percentage of paraplegia at 48-h. In addition, all mice overexpressing miR-155 in ECs (ECs-miR-155-KI mice) were paraplegic at 48-h post-ACC. Altogether, our results suggest that miR-155 activity in ChAT+ neurons protects the SC against ischemic injury during the first day post-ACC before becoming deleterious during the second day, which indicates that early and late paraplegias arise from different molecular malfunctions. These results point to the need to develop specific protective therapeutics aimed at inhibiting both the early and late deleterious events after open repair surgery of aortic aneurisms.

Protective Effects of a synthetic glycosaminoglycan mimetic (OTR4132) in a rat immunotoxic lesion model of septohippocampal cholinergic degeneration

Using a partial hippocampal cholinergic denervation model, we assessed the effects of the RGTA® named OTR4132, a synthetic heparan-mimetic biopolymer with neuroprotective/neurotrophic properties. Long-Evans male rats were injected with the cholinergic immunotoxin 192 IgG-saporin into the medial septum/diagonal band of Broca (0.37 µg); vehicle injections served as controls. Immediately after surgery, OTR4132 was injected into the lateral ventricles (0.25 µg/5 µl/rat) or intramuscularly (1.5 mg/kg). To determine whether OTR4132 reached the lesion site, some rats received intracerebroventricular (ICV) or intramuscular (I.M.) injections of fluorescent OTR4132. Rats were sacrificed at 4, 10, 20, or 60 days post-lesion (DPL). Fluorescein-labeled OTR4132 injected ICV or I.M. was found in the lesion from 4 to 20 DPL. Rats with partial hippocampal cholinergic denervation showed decreases in hippocampal acetylcholinesterase reaction products and in choline acetyltransferase-positive neurons in the medial septum. These lesions were the largest at 10 DPL and then remained stable until 60 DPL. Both hippocampal acetylcholinesterase reaction products and choline acetyltransferase-positive neurons in the medial septum effects were significantly attenuated in OTR4132-treated rats. These effects were not related to competition between OTR4132 and 192 IgG-saporin for the neurotrophin receptor P75 (p75NTR), as OTR4132 treatment did not alter the internalization of Cy3-labelled 192 IgG. OTR4132 was more efficient at reducing the acetylcholinesterase reaction products and choline acetyltransferase-positive neurons than a comparable heparin dose used as a comparator. Using the slice superfusion technique, we found that the lesion-induced decrease in muscarinic autoreceptor sensitivity was abolished by intramuscular OTR4132. After partial cholinergic damage, OTR4132 was able to concentrate at the brain lesion site possibly due to the disruption of the blood-brain barrier and to exert structural and functional effects that hold promises for neuroprotection/neurotrophism.

The habenula-targeting neurons in the mouse entopeduncular nucleus contain not only somatostatin-positive neurons but also nitric oxide synthase-positive neurons

The entopeduncular nucleus (EPN) in rodents is one of the two major output nuclei of the basal ganglia and corresponds to the internal segment of the globus pallidus in primates. Previous studies have shown that the EPN contains three types of neurons that project to different targets, namely, parvalbumin (PV)-, somatostatin (SOM)-, and choline acetyltransferase-positive neurons. However, we have recently reported that neurons lacking immunoreactivities for these substances are present in the EPN. Here, we demonstrate that 27.7% of all EPN neurons showed immunoreactivity for nitric oxide synthase (NOS). Among them, NOS-only positive and NOS/SOM double-positive neurons accounted for 20.1% and 6.8%, respectively, whereas NOS/PV double-positive neurons were rarely observed. NOS-containing neurons were distributed in a shell region surrounding the thalamus-targeting, PV-rich core region of the EPN, especially in the ventromedial part of the shell. The retrograde tracer fluoro-gold (FG) was injected into several target regions of EPN neurons. Among FG-labeled EPN neurons after injection into the lateral habenula (LHb), NOS-only positive, NOS/SOM double-positive, and SOM-only positive neurons accounted for 25.7%, 15.2%, and 59.1%, respectively. We conclude that NOS-positive neurons are the second major population of LHb-targeting EPN neurons, suggesting their possible involvement in behaviors in response to aversive stimuli.

Excitatory Impact of Dental Occlusion on Dorsal Motor Nucleus of Vagus.

Neurons in the trigeminal mesencephalic nucleus (Vme) have axons that branch peripherally to innervate the orofacial region and project centrally to several motor nuclei in brainstem. The dorsal motor nucleus of vagus nerve (DMV) resides in the brainstem and takes a role in visceral motor function such as pancreatic exocrine secretion. The present study aimed to demonstrate the presence of Vme–DMV circuit, activation of which would elicit a trigeminal neuroendocrine response. A masticatory dysfunctional animal model termed unilateral anterior crossbite (UAC) model created by disturbing the dental occlusion was used. Cholera toxin B subunit (CTb) was injected into the inferior alveolar nerve of rats to help identify the central axon terminals of Vme neurons around the choline acetyltransferase (ChAT) positive motor neurons in the DMV. The level of vesicular glutamate transporter 1 (VGLUT1) expressed in DMV, the level of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) expressed in pancreas, the level of glucagon and insulin expression in islets and serum, and the blood glucose level were detected and compared between UAC and the age matched sham-operation control mice. Data indicated that compared with the controls, there were more CTb/VGLUT1 double labeled axon endings around the ChAT positive neurons in the DMV of UAC groups. Mice in UAC group expressed a higher VGLUT1 protein level in DMV, AChE protein level in pancreas, glucagon and insulin level in islet and serum, and higher postprandial blood glucose level, but lower fasting blood glucose level. All these were reversed at 15-weeks when UAC cessation was performed from 11-weeks (all, P < 0.05). Our findings demonstrated Vme–DMV circuit via which the aberrant occlusion elicited a trigeminal neuroendocrine response such as alteration in the postprandial blood glucose level. Dental occlusion is proposed as a potential therapeutic target for reversing the increased postprandial glucose level.

Calcium-sensing receptor (CaSR) agonist R568 inhibits small intestinal motility of mice through neural and non-neural mechanisms.

Gastrointestinal motility (GI) disorder causes symptoms such as dyspepsia, abdominal distention, and constipation and severely affects quality of life. The calcium (Ca2+)-sensing receptor (CaSR) expressed in the digestive tract can be activated by amino acids and participates in GI motility regulation. This study is designed to explore the effect and underlying mechanism of CaSR agonist R568 on the small intestine motility of mice in vivo and ex vivo. R568 was given to male C57BL/6 mice by gavage or incubated with isolated jejunum and ileum segments to observe its effects on GI motility and the involved neurons, neurotransmitters and hormones were detected by fluorescence immunohistochemistry and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays. The in vivo results showed that the intestinal propulsive rate reduced in response to oral intake of R568. R568 treatment increased the numbers of nitric oxide synthase-positive neurons and nitric oxide release but decreased the choline acetyl transferase-positive neurons and acetylcholine release in the myenteric plexuses. R568 increased the secretion of cholecystokinin in the intestinal tissues and serum but had no effect on the secretion of glucagon like peptide-1. Ex vivo results showed that R568 inhibited the contractility of intestinal strips from the jejunum and ileum. Nitric oxide synthase (NOS) inhibitor L-nitroarginine methyl ester (L-NAME), M-receptor antagonist-atropine, and tetrodotoxin (TTX) failed to block the effect of R568. CaSR co-expressed with interstitial cells of Cajal (ICCs) in the myenteric plexus suggests the possibility that ICCs mediated the effect of R568. Our findings demonstrate that CaSR activation inhibited intestinal motility, and both the enteric nervous system and non-neural mechanism are involved in this process.

Effects of amylin on food intake and body weight via sympathetic innervation of the interscapular brown adipose tissue

ABSTRACT Objective: Amylin acts on the lateral dorsal tegmental nucleus (LDT), resulting in anorexic and weight-loss effects and activates thermogenesis in the interscapular brown adipose tissue (IBAT). In addition, it induces neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS) and choline acetyltransferase (ChAT)-mediated feeding. However, the influence of the intact sympathetic nervous system (SNS) in mediating amylin’s effects has not been fully characterised. We investigated whether extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), nNOS, and ChAT activities in the LDT are responsible for amylin’s anorexigenic effects and whether this requires an intact SNS. Methods: C57BL/6J mice [wild-type (WT), sham, and sympathetic denervation of IBAT] were used. Food consumption, body weight, and distribution of pERK, nNOS, and ChAT positive neurons in the brain were examined following acute and chronic amylin administration. Results: Food intake was significantly decreased in WT and sham animals following acute amylin injection, but not in the denervated mice. Chronic amylin reduced body weight and serum glucose levels after 6 weeks, but increased insulin levels; no changes were observed in the denervated mice. Acute amylin increased the expression of nNOS, ChAT, and uncoupling protein-1 in the IBAT of WT and sham mice, while no changes were observed in the denervated mice and pERK from the above effect. Conclusions: Intact SNS of IBAT influences amylin-induced suppression of food intake and body weight, thus affecting nNOS and ChAT signalling in the LDT and locus coeruleus.

Cholinergic and inflammatory phenotypes in transgenic tau mouse models of Alzheimer's disease and frontotemporal lobar degeneration.

An early and sizeable loss of basal forebrain cholinergic neurons is a well-characterized feature associated with measurable deficits in spatial learning and cognitive impairment in patients with Alzheimer’s disease. In addition, pro-inflammatory glial cells such as astrocytes and microglia may play a key role in the neurodegenerative cascade of Alzheimer’s disease and tauopathies. We recently presented two mouse models: Line 1, expressing the truncated tau fragment identified as the core of the Alzheimer’s paired helical filament, and Line 66, expressing full-length human tau carrying a double mutation (P301S and G335D). Line 1 mice have a pathology that is akin to Alzheimer’s, whilst Line 66 resembles frontotemporal lobar degeneration. However, their cholinergic and inflammatory phenotypes remain elusive. We performed histological evaluation of choline acetyltransferase, acetylcholinesterase, p75 neurotrophin receptor, microglial ionized calcium binding adaptor molecule 1 and astrocytic glial fibrillary acidic protein in the basal forebrain, hippocampus and cortex of these models. A significant lowering of choline acetyltransferase-positive neurons and p75-positive neurons in the basal forebrain of Line 1 at 3, 6 and 9 months was observed in two independent studies, alongside a significant decrease in acetylcholinesterase staining in the cortex and hippocampus. The reductions in choline acetyltransferase positivity varied between 30% and 50% at an age when Line 1 mice show spatial learning impairments. Furthermore, an increase in microglial ionized calcium binding adaptor molecule 1 staining was observed in the basal forebrain, hippocampus and entorhinal cortex of Line 1 at 6 months. Line 66 mice displayed an intact cholinergic basal forebrain, and no difference in p75-positive neurons at 3 or 9 months. In addition, Line 66 exhibited significant microglial ionized calcium binding adaptor molecule 1 increase in the basal forebrain and hippocampus, suggesting a prominent neuroinflammatory profile. Increased concentrations of microglial interleukin-1β and astrocytic complement 3 were also seen in the hippocampus of both Line 1 and Line 66. The cholinergic deficit in Line 1 mice confirms the Alzheimer’s disease-like phenotype in Line 1 mice, whilst Line 66 revealed no measurable change in total cholinergic expression, a phenotypic trait of frontotemporal lobar degeneration. These two transgenic lines are therefore suitable for discriminating mechanistic underpinnings between the Alzheimer’s and frontotemporal lobar degeneration-like phenotypes of these mice.

Apelin-13 inhibits gastric motility through vagal cholinergic pathway in rats.

The expression of apelin and its receptors (APJ) in central autonomic networks suggests that apelin may regulate gastrointestinal motor functions. In rodents, central administration of apelin-13 has been shown to inhibit gastric emptying; however, the mechanisms involved remain to be determined. Using male adult Sprague-Dawley rats, the aims of the present study were 1) to determine the expression of APJ receptor in the dorsal vagal complex (DVC), 2) to assess the effects of central application of apelin-13 into the DVC on gastric tone and motility, and 3) to investigate the neuronal pathways responsible for apelin-induced alterations. APJ receptor immunoreactivity was detected in gastric-projecting and choline acetyltransferase-positive neurons of the DVC. Microinjection of apelin-13 into the DVC significantly decreased gastric tone and motility in both corpus and antrum. The apelin-induced reduction in gastric tone and motility was prevented by surgical vagotomy or fourth ventricular application of the APJ receptor antagonist, [Ala13]apelin-13 (F13A). Systemic administration of the muscarinic receptor antagonist atropine, but not the nitric oxide synthase inhibitor nitro-l-arginine methyl ester (l-NAME), abolished the apelin-induced inhibitory responses. The present results indicate a central modulatory role of apelin in the vagal neurocircuitry that controls gastric motor functions via withdrawal of the tonically active cholinergic pathway. NEW & NOTEWORTHY This is the first study investigating the effects induced by brain stem application of apelin-13 while monitoring gastric tone and motility in rats. We have found that gastric-projecting neurons of the dorsal vagal complex express apelin receptors (APJ), which mediate the inhibitory actions of apelin-13. The inhibitory effects of apelin were abolished by systemic preadministration of atropine, but not nitro-l-arginine methyl ester (l-NAME). Apelin seems to modulate gastric motility via withdrawal of the tonically active vagal cholinergic pathway.

Alpha-7 Nicotinic Receptor Signaling Pathway Participates in the Neurogenesis Induced by ChAT-Positive Neurons in the Subventricular Zone.

Choline acetyltransferase-positive (ChAT+) neurons within the subventricular zone (SVZ) have been shown to promote neurogenesis after stroke in mice by secreting acetylcholine (ACh); however, the mechanisms remain unclear. Receptors known to bind ACh include the nicotinic ACh receptors (nAChRs), which are present in the SVZ and have been shown to be important for cell proliferation, differentiation, and survival. In this study, we investigated the neurogenic role of the alpha-7 nAChR (α7 nAChR) in a mouse model of middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) by using α7 nAChR inhibitor methyllycaconitine. Mice subjected to MCAO exhibited elevated expression of cytomembrane and nuclear fibroblast growth factor receptor 1 (FGFR1), as well as increased expression of PI3K, pAkt, doublecortin (DCX), polysialylated - neuronal cell adhesion molecule (PSA-NCAM), and mammalian achaete-scute homolog 1 (Mash1). MCAO mice also had more glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP)/5-bromo-2'-deoxyuridine (BrdU)-positive cells and DCX-positive cells in the SVZ than did the sham-operated group. Methyllycaconitine treatment increased cytomembrane FGFR1 expression and GFAP/BrdU-positive cells, upregulated the levels of phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) and phospho-Akt (pAkt), decreased nuclear FGFR1 expression, decreased the number of DCX-positive cells, and reduced the levels of DCX, PSA-NCAM, and Mash1 in the SVZ of MCAO mice compared with levels in vehicle-treated MCAO mice. MCAO mice treated with α7 nAChR agonist PNU-282987 exhibited the opposite effects. Our data show that α7 nAChR may decrease the proliferation of neural stem cells and promote differentiation of existing neural stem cells after stroke. These results identify a new mechanism of SVZ ChAT+ neuron-induced neurogenesis.

Gain Modulation of Cholinergic Neurons in the Medial Septum-Diagonal Band of Broca Through Hyperpolarization.

Hippocampal network oscillations are important for learning and memory. Theta rhythms are involved in attention, navigation, and memory encoding, whereas sharp wave-ripple complexes are involved in memory consolidation. Cholinergic neurons in the medial septum-diagonal band of Broca (MS-DB) influence both types of hippocampal oscillations, promoting theta rhythms and suppressing sharp wave-ripples. They also receive frequency-dependent hyperpolarizing feedback from hippocamposeptal connections, potentially affecting their role as neuromodulators in the septohippocampal circuit. However, little is known about how the integration properties of cholinergic MS-DB neurons change with hyperpolarization. By potentially altering firing behavior in cholinergic neurons, hyperpolarizing feedback from the hippocampal neurons may, in turn, change hippocampal network activity. To study changes in membrane integration properties in cholinergic neurons in response to hyperpolarizing inputs, we used whole-cell patch-clamp recordings targeting genetically labeled, choline acetyltransferase-positive neurons in mouse brain slices. Hyperpolarization of cholinergic MS-DB neurons resulted in a long-lasting decrease in spike firing rate and input-output gain. Additionally, voltage-clamp measures implicated a slowly inactivating, 4-AP-insensitive, outward K+ conductance. Using a conductance-based model of cholinergic MS-DB neurons, we show that the ability of this conductance to modulate firing rate and gain depends on the expression of an experimentally verified shallow intrinsic spike frequency-voltage relationship. Together, these findings point to a means through which negative feedback from hippocampal neurons can influence the role of cholinergic MS-DB neurons. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Cellular Transplantation as the Treatment of Alzheimer’s Diseas e in Mouse Models

Acetylcholine (Ach) and N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) have been two major therapeutic targets of Alzheimer’s disease (AD) for decade. However, truly effective remedy for AD has not been successfully developed. We previously transplanted neurons derived from human induced pluripotent stem (hiPS) cells into the hippocampus of human amyloid precursor protein transgenic AD model mice. The cell transplantation significantly improved cognitive dysfunction in the dementia model mice. Human choline acetyl transferase (ChAT) positive cholinergic neurons located throughout the cortex of the grafted mice. Human and mouse ChAT positive neurons and alpha7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (α7nAChR) positive neurons significantly increased in the cortex and hippocampus of the grafted dementia mice compared with the vehicle injected dementia mice. Human and mouse vesicular GABA transporter (VGAT) positive neurons distributed mainly in the hippocampus and, though the number was small, human VGAT positive neurons located in the cortex. In the grafted mouse cortex, the number of GABA receptor (GABAR) positive neurons of both hiPS origin and mouse origin increased significantly compared with those in the vehicle injected mouse cortex. We suggested that positive feedback loops of neurotransmitter secretion of the cortex and hippocampus induced the characteristic distribution of the transplanted neurons. In this review, we summarized current advances in stem cell therapy for dementia model mice, especially to highlight the relationships between major neurotransmitters and host/transplanted neurons.

Septal projections to nucleus incertus in the rat: bidirectional pathways for modulation of hippocampal function.

Projections from the nucleus incertus (NI) to the septum have been implicated in the modulation of hippocampal theta rhythm. In this study we describe a previously uncharacterized projection from the septum to the NI, which may provide feedback modulation of the ascending circuitry. Fluorogold injections into the NI resulted in retrograde labeling in the septum that was concentrated in the horizontal diagonal band and areas of the posterior septum including the septofimbrial and triangular septal nuclei. Double-immunofluorescent staining indicated that the majority of NI-projecting septal neurons were calretinin-positive and some were parvalbumin-, calbindin-, or glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD)-67-positive. Choline acetyltransferase-positive neurons were Fluorogold-negative. Injection of anterograde tracers into medial septum, or triangular septal and septofimbrial nuclei, revealed fibers descending to the supramammillary nucleus, median raphe, and the NI. These anterogradely labeled varicosities displayed synaptophysin immunoreactivity, indicating septal inputs form synapses on NI neurons. Anterograde tracer also colocalized with GAD-67-positive puncta in labeled fibers, which in some cases made close synaptic contact with GAD-67-labeled NI neurons. These data provide evidence for the existence of an inhibitory descending projection from medial and posterior septum to the NI that provides a "feedback loop" to modulate the comparatively more dense ascending NI projections to medial septum and hippocampus. Neural processes and associated behaviors activated or modulated by changes in hippocampal theta rhythm may depend on reciprocal connections between ascending and descending pathways rather than on unidirectional regulation via the medial septum.

Estradiol modulation of neurotrophin receptor expression in female mouse basal forebrain cholinergic neurons in vivo.

The neuroprotective effect of estradiol (E2) on basal forebrain cholinergic neurons (BFCNs) has been suggested to occur as a result of E2 modulation of the neurotrophin system on these neurons. The present study provides a comprehensive examination of the relationship between E2 and neurotrophin signaling on BFCNs by investigating the effect of E2 deficiency on the expression levels of neurotrophin receptors (NRs), TrkA, TrkB, and p75 on BFCNs. The number of TrkA receptor-expressing choline acetyltransferase-positive neurons was significantly reduced in the medial septum (MS) in the absence of E2. A significant reduction in TrkB-expressing choline acetyltransferase-positive cells was also observed in ovariectomized mice in the MS and nucleus basalis magnocellularis (NBM). p75 receptor expression was reduced in the NBM and striatum but not in the MS. We also showed that estrogen receptor (ER)-α was expressed by a small percentage of TrkA- and TrkB-positive neurons in the MS (12%) and NBM (19%) and by a high percentage of TrkB-positive neurons in the striatum (69%). Similarly, ERα was expressed at low levels by p75 neurons in the MS (6%) and NBM (9%) but was not expressed on striatal neurons. Finally, ERα knockout using neuron-specific estrogen receptor-α knockout transgenic mice abolished all E2-mediated changes in the NR expression on BFCNs. These results indicate that E2 differentially regulates NR expression on BFCNs, with effects depending on the NR type and neuroanatomical location, and also provide some evidence that alterations in the NR expression are, at least in part, mediated via ERα.

Postnatal development of nestin positive neurons in rat basal forebrain: Different onset and topography with choline acetyltransferase and parvalbumin expression

Our previous studies identified a sub-population of cholinergic neurons which express nestin in the rostral part of the basal forebrain (BF) in normal adult rats. In the present study, the postnatal developmental patterns of nestin, choline acetyl transferase (ChAT) and parvalbumin (PV) positive neurons were explored by means of immunohistochemistry combined with immunofluorescence double label methods. Compared with early onset of ChAT expression (from P1) and delayed onset of PV expression (from P16), nestin positive activity was detected in the BF from P9 and co-expressed by parts of the ChAT positive neurons within the same region during the whole postnatal development process. However, ChAT and PV were not coexpressed by the neurons within the medial septum-diagonal band of Broca (MS-DBB) of BF. These results might imply a composite of separate development patterns displayed by different subpopulations of cholinergic neurons (nestin positive cholinergic neurons and nestin negative cholinergic neurons) within this region. Moreover, the topographic distribution of nestin, ChAT and PV positive neurons also showed different characteristics. In summary, our present study revealed a remarkable timing and topographic difference on the postnatal development of the nestin expression within the MS-DBB of BF compared with ChAT and PV expression. It is further suggested that nestin is re-expressed by cholinergic neurons in the BF after differentiation but not persisted from neuronal precursor cells.

Egr2::Cre Mediated Conditional Ablation of Dicer Disrupts Histogenesis of Mammalian Central Auditory Nuclei

Histogenesis of the auditory system requires extensive molecular orchestration. Recently, Dicer1, an essential gene for generation of microRNAs, and miR-96 were shown to be important for development of the peripheral auditory system. Here, we investigated their role for the formation of the auditory brainstem. Egr2::Cre-mediated early embryonic ablation of Dicer1 caused severe disruption of auditory brainstem structures. In adult animals, the volume of the cochlear nucleus complex (CNC) was reduced by 73.5%. This decrease is in part attributed to the lack of the microneuronal shell. In contrast, fusiform cells, which similar to the granular cells of the microneural shell are derived from Egr2 positive cells, were still present. The volume reduction of the CNC was already present at birth (67.2% decrease). The superior olivary complex was also drastically affected in these mice. Nissl staining as well as Vglut1 and Calbindin 1 immunolabeling revealed that principal SOC nuclei such as the medial nucleus of the trapezoid body and the lateral superior olive were absent. Only choline acetyltransferase positive neurons of the olivocochlear bundle were observed as a densely packed cell group in the ventrolateral area of the SOC. Mid-embryonic ablation of Dicer1 in the ventral cochlear nucleus by Atoh7::Cre-mediated recombination resulted in normal formation of the cochlear nucleus complex, indicating an early embryonic requirement of Dicer1. Quantitative RT-PCR analysis of miR-96 demonstrated low expression in the embryonic brainstem and up-regulation thereafter, suggesting that other microRNAs are required for proper histogenesis of the auditory brainstem. Together our data identify a critical role of Dicer activity during embryonic development of the auditory brainstem.

Diffusion-weighted magnetic resonance imaging detection of basal forebrain cholinergic degeneration in a mouse model

Loss of basal forebrain cholinergic neurons is an early and key feature of Alzheimer's disease, and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) volumetric measurement of the basal forebrain has recently gained attention as a potential diagnostic tool for this condition. The aim of this study was to determine whether loss of basal forebrain cholinergic neurons underpins changes which can be detected through diffusion MRI using diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) and probabilistic tractography in a mouse model. To cause selective basal forebrain cholinergic degeneration, the toxin saporin conjugated to a p75 neurotrophin receptor antibody (mu-p75-SAP) was used. This resulted in ~25% loss of the basal forebrain cholinergic neurons and significant loss of terminal cholinergic projections in the hippocampus, as determined by histology. To test whether lesion of cholinergic neurons caused basal forebrain, hippocampal, or whole brain atrophy, we performed manual segmentation analysis, which revealed no significant atrophy in lesioned animals compared to controls (Rb-IgG-SAP). However, analysis by DTI of the basal forebrain area revealed a significant increase in fractional anisotropy (FA; +7.7%), mean diffusivity (MD; +6.1%), axial diffusivity (AD; +8.5%) and radial diffusivity (RD; +4.0%) in lesioned mice compared to control animals. These parameters strongly inversely correlated with the number of choline acetyl transferase-positive neurons, with FA showing the greatest association (r(2)=0.72), followed by MD (r(2)=0.64), AD (r(2)=0.64) and RD (r(2)=0.61). Moreover, probabilistic tractography analysis of the septo-hippocampal tracts originating from the basal forebrain revealed an increase in streamline MD (+5.1%) and RD (+4.3%) in lesioned mice. This study illustrates that moderate loss of basal forebrain cholinergic neurons (representing only a minor proportion of all septo-hippocampal axons) can be detected by measuring either DTI parameters of the basal forebrain nuclei or tractography parameters of the basal forebrain tracts. These findings provide increased support for using DTI and probabilistic tractography as non-invasive tools for diagnosing and/or monitoring the progression of conditions affecting the integrity of the basal forebrain cholinergic system in humans, including Alzheimer's disease.

Carbamylated erythropoietin ameliorates hypoxia‐induced cognitive and behavioral defects with the generation of choline acetyltransferase‐positive neurons

Carbamylated erythropoietin (CEPO) is attracting widespread interest because of its neuroprotective effects without influencing erythropoiesis. Here we show that CEPO, unlike EPO, does not stimulate erythropoiesis. Both CEPO and EPO inhibit the death/apoptosis of neurons in the hypoxic model of primary neurons and induce neuron proliferation and differentiation in hypoxic mice. Hypoxic mice show apparent memory deficits at 3 and 30 days after hypoxia. The administration of CEPO/EPO significantly improves cognitive and behavioral defects after hypoxic insults. Further investigation shows that CEPO/EPO induces neuron proliferation and differentiation and promotes the generation of choline acetyltransferase (ChAT)(+) neurons in hypoxic mice. Phosphorylated AKT was colabeled with ChAT(+) neurons and coexpressed in bromodeoxyuridine-positive cells, suggesting that the PI3K/AKT pathway may play a pivotal role in CEPO/EPO-cholinergic neuron generation. These results reveal that CEPO/EPO ameliorates hypoxia-induced cognitive and behavioral defects possibly through the generation of ChAT-positive neurons.