Choice Of Interpretation Research Articles

On Judicial Discretion in Statutory Interpretation

In most cases it is realistic to suppose that statutes have a precise, judicially determinable meaning and that the courts are in a position to discover and declare that meaning through a process of legal reasoning. Yet there are cases in which this concept is simply unworkable. Not every question of statutory interpretation can be resolved persuasively through a process of legal reasoning, and to pretend otherwise is to perpetuate a fiction. Some legal fictions are useful; this one is not. It degrades, confuses, and corrupts the interpretive process.Conventional interpretation is likely to fail in cases such as the ones I describe in this essay. Sometimes a conscientious judge will examine the relevant statute and conclude that more than one interpretation is possible and that conventional considerations do not favor a particular interpretive choice. In such a case, the judge should be free to declare that the statute creates a framework for choice, and the judge should be allowed to exercise prudent judgment within the statutory framework by preferring one permissible interpretation or another, while explaining candidly the reasons for the preference. In such a case the interpretive process is essentially a discretionary process, and it should be theorized as such.

An Object of Interest: Observing Elizabeth in Andrew Davies' Pride and Prejudice

Fourteen years after its first airing, screen writer Andrew Davies’ 1995 adaptation of Jane Austen's novel Pride and Prejudice remains a benchmark against which Austen adaptation is popularly measured. Noted for its ‘sexing up’ of period drama, the adaptation ostensibly addresses modern sensibilities and contemporary dramatic expectations. Davies’ interpretive choices place an emphasis on sensuality and bring focus to Darcy's desires. Such choices, however, overwhelm the distinctly female point of view present in Austen's novel and work to position Elizabeth Bennet as a sexual commodity. Davies’ adaptation, therefore, demonstrates a surprisingly conservative reading of Pride and Prejudice.

The influence of domain interpretations on computational models

Computational models are usually defined over specific domains. For example, Turing machines are defined over strings, and the recursive functions over the natural numbers. Nevertheless, one often uses one computational model to compute functions over another domain, in which case, one is obliged to employ a representation, mapping elements of one domain into the other. For instance, Turing machines (or modern computers) are understood as computing numerical functions, by interpreting strings as numbers, via a binary or decimal representation, say. We ask: Is the choice of the domain interpretation important? Clearly, complexity is influenced, but does the representation also affect computability? Can it be that the same model computes strictly more functions via one representation than another? We show that the answer is “yes”, and further analyze the influence of domain interpretation on the extensionality of computational models (that is, on the set of functions computed by the model). We introduce the notion of interpretation-completeness for computational models that are basically unaffected by the choice of domain interpretation, and prove that Turing machines and the recursive functions are interpretation-complete, while two-counter machines are incomplete. We continue by examining issues based on model extensionality that are influenced by the domain interpretation. We suggest a notion for comparing computational power of models operating over arbitrary domains, as well as an interpretation of the Church-Turing Thesis over arbitrary domains.

Pontiac's War: Its Causes, Course, and Consequences (review)

Reviewed by: Pontiac's War: Its Causes, Course, and Consequences James W. Paxton Pontiac's War: Its Causes, Course, and Consequences. Richard Middleton. New York: Routledge, 2007. Pp. 288. $24.95 'Pontiac's War,' writes Richard Middleton, 'was one of the most successful campaigns fought by the Indian peoples of eastern North America in three centuries of European contact' (ix). Few scholars would dispute this claim, but, until the publication of Pontiac's War, no one has so determinedly pursued the military and diplomatic history of the conflict to show just how close First Nations came to driving the British from the trans-Appalachian west. Indeed, soon after fighting broke out in May 1763, warriors captured nine British forts. Only Detroit, Pitt, and Niagara held out against the multinational forces [End Page 166] arrayed against them. If warriors could not quite seal final victory, British generals faced problems of their own. Lacking resources and unable to convince colonies to share the financial and human costs of the war, British armies were unable to launch effective counter-offensives. Instead, Britain negotiated a series of treaties in 1764 and 1765 that ended the fighting but without punishing Pontiac or his followers. In this battle-by-battle account, Middleton strives to provide a 'balanced' retelling of this sprawling conflict. In particular, he wants to 'reevaluate the role of the different Indian nations, many of whom have been inadequately assessed' (ix). This compact and accessible overview does not offer a wholly original interpretation so much as engage established historiographical debates, but, by focusing on the First Nations' military and diplomatic achievements, it does restore a sense of contingency to a now familiar subject. Middleton's greatest achievement is his ability to impose narrative unity on a complex war that involved numerous groups and ranged over a vast landscape. Two related interpretive choices make this possible. First, Middleton restores Pontiac to a central place in the conflict that bears his name. Since Howard Peckham demoted Pontiac from a pan-Indian leader to a local war chief, scholars have debated whether the war was one conflict guided by a single mind (Pontiac's) or a series of engagements directed by several regionally prominent leaders. While Middleton recognizes that the diffuse nature of power within Aboriginal societies prevented any one person from taking command, he concludes, 'The influence of Pontiac seemed almost universal' (185). 'It was Pontiac who lit the torch and sustained the coalition for three different campaigns' and it was Pontiac who 'brought the hostilities to an end' (202). Second, Middleton argues that First Nations acted not in a disorganized fashion, as one would expect of societies composed of fluid and unstable leader-follower networks. Rather, Pontiac followed a grand strategic plan first proposed by the Seneca that involved many nations working in concert to strike several British forts simultaneously. Middleton may exaggerate Pontiac's ability to direct events across half a continent – his own evidence suggests the persistence of considerable local autonomy – but he does make a strong case that Pontiac was greater than a local war chief. Nonetheless, Pontiac's extraordinary battlefield and diplomatic successes could not alter British and colonial attitudes and policies towards Aboriginal people. Middleton concludes that Natives 'had no chance ultimately of prevailing against the European Americans' (206). Like Pontiac, Middleton succeeds on many fronts but falls short in the end. For a work about Native participation in Pontiac's War, [End Page 167] this book is curiously uninformed by ethno-history. For example, Middleton attributes the origins of the pan-Indian war against the British to the French because 'the scheme . . . certainly had the hallmark of someone thinking imperially' (35). First Nations with real grievances against British policies and who were steeped in the influences of militant, nativist prophets did not require the French either to prod them to war or to supply them with a strategy. Elsewhere, Middleton depicts the Six Nations as imperialists, a characterization that flies in the face of a generation of scholarship. At other times, the book is burdened with ethnocentric language. Alexander McKee is described as a 'half-breed' (84), and some First Nations' victories are deemed massacres, slaughters, or butchery (85...

Introduction to the Special Issue on Ambiguity and Semantic Judgments

Most computational and psycholinguistic studies of language interpretation are based on the assumption that each use of a linguistic expression has a unique intended interpretation in context, and that addressees or readers can recover such a unique interpretation. The task for those aiming to develop a model of interpretation, then, is to identify which of the interpretations of a linguistic expression is intended in a given context by its speaker or preferred by its addressee, or to study the factors that affect the choice of interpretation. Most researchers in the area would probably accept that this assumption is just a convenient idealization, but they would also probably expect it to be harmless, in that it would hold of the overwhelming majority of cases of language use. However, increasing evidence from both corpus-based work in computational linguistics and psychological experimentation suggests that this idealization may be more questionable that so far assumed. Computational work, in particular on word sense disambiguation and anaphora resolution, has revealed how hard it is to pinpoint

'It Was Canadian, Then, Typically Canadian': Revisiting Wilderness at Historic Sites

A culture of wilderness – academic, artistic, and popular – that idealised the heroic age of the fur trade so dominated historic site selection in Canada that our idea of wilderness became married to a particular point in time. Along the old routes of exploration and trade, on the rivers of the Canadian Shield spilling out onto the northern plains, Canada has preserved and reconstructed fur-trade sites to convey a sensibility of wilderness. Rocky Mountain House, York Factory, Old Fort William and others remain the flagship sites at both the national and provincial levels. However, these sites face significant dilemmas in terms of managing their environmental and historical resources. Choices of location, reconstruction and interpretation are essential to constructing an illusion or memory of wilderness.

The uses of lute song: texts, contexts and pretexts for 'historically informed' performance

Because English solo songs from the Golden Age period (c.1600–20) are chiefly familiar from printed books clearly intended for domestic use, modern scholars and performers have tended to assume that composers had the literary interests, practical needs and technical limitations of upper-class amateurs in mind right from the start of the creative process. According to this view, lute ayres are the musical equivalents of early 17th-century miniature portraits: objets d’art for personal contemplation (the self-accompanying singer) or special sharing with special friends. This article explores the lute song repertory from a different angle, as the domesticated tip of a professional and (at the time) a publicly appreciable iceberg much of which melted away with the professional performers originally responsible for its semi-improvisatory effectiveness. The manuscript Oxford, Christ Church Mus.439 is studied in particular—a source with probable professional provenance, preserving some highly ornamented versions of songs now much better known in their plainer printed versions and (at the other extreme) some songs from which the fully written-out lute parts familiar from the printed books have been removed. What sorts of alternative were improvised in their place? While lute song publishers assumed a ‘minimalist aesthetic’ and sensibly encouraged their customers to do the same, lute song composers were aware of other possibilities and those with a theatrical leaning (Campion, Rosseter, Johnson, for instance) might even have preferred them. Today’s historically informed performers have a wider range of interpretative choice legitimately open to them than perhaps they realize.

A Genetic Study of a Salix Germplasm Resource Reveals New Insights into Relationships Among Subgenera, Sections and Species

Genetic relationships among 154 genotypes, including 50 species, held within the UK National Willow Collection were analysed using nine primer combinations in an optimised fluorescent amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP®) protocol. The AFLP® data resolved relationships at all levels, from discriminating between closely related accessions to differentiating among majority of species, sections and subgenera. The neighbour-joining dendrogram split accessions into three major well-supported clusters, two of which comprised species of the subgenera Vetrix and Salix. Surprisingly, the third (98% bootstrap support) comprised only Salix triandra accessions. The genetic similarity (GS) between S. triandra and Salix or Vetrix was similar (0.39 and 0.40, respectively) and greater than the genetic similarity between Salix and Vetrix (GS = 0.57). Separate clustering of S. triandra is also supported by hierarchical analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA), that partitioned 31.4% of the total variance between these three groups, whereas only 16.3% was partitioned between the two subgenera. These results challenge all current classifications which assign S. triandra to subgenus Salix. Principal coordinate analysis gave corresponding results and facilitated interpretation of relationships among species within sections of the two subgenera, which are discussed. The study included 40 species which have been used in breeding, and the findings will facilitate the choice of parents and interpretation of the results of different crosses, on the basis of more accurate knowledge of genetic relationships. AFLPs® also detected identical genotypes (within the limits of AFLP® error) which should not be used as distinct parents in breeding programmes.

The effect of gait modification on the external knee adduction moment is reference frame dependent

Background This study investigated the extent to which reference frame convention affects the interpretation of how gait modification alters the external knee adduction moment. Methods Data were collected from a single male able-bodied subject performing three gait tasks: normal, toe out and medial thrust. The net external moment vector at the knee was expressed in five alternative reference frames: the femur anatomical frame, the proximal tibia anatomical frame, the distal tibia anatomical frame, the laboratory frame and a non-orthogonal knee joint coordinate system. For each reference frame, the knee adduction moment was taken as the component about the frame’s anteroposterior axis. Findings Gait modification and selected reference frame both influenced the calculated knee adduction moment. Furthermore, these two effects were interactive, with the magnitude of the changes in the knee adduction moment produced by toe out and medial thrust gait being highly dependent on selected reference frame. Interpretation Choice of reference frame for calculating the external knee adduction moment is therefore an important consideration for studies investigating the relative effectiveness of interventions such as gait modification.

Assessing functional diversity in the field – methodology matters!

1. Interpreting the functional diversity of vegetation is important in unravelling the relationship between environmental change, community composition and ecosystem processes. Functional diversity is the range and distribution of functional trait values in a community. It can be described, among other indicators, by community-level weighted means of trait values (CWM) and functional divergence. Standard methods exist for trait measurements but not for assessments of CWM and functional divergence in the field. No research has addressed the effects of different methods of estimating relative abundances, nor the need to estimate traits at individual, population or species level, or whether methods could be used that bypass taxonomy all together. 2. This study reviews and evaluates plot-level assessment methods of functional diversity in herbaceous vegetation. We asked: (i) Should the objective of the study influence the method for estimating relative abundance? (ii) What are the strengths and limitations of intensive vs. ‘rapid’ approaches, and when should either be applied? (iii) Are taxon-free methods robust in comparison to taxon-explicit methods of trait measurement? Under what circumstances might they be applied? 3. Our review of published studies that have measured functional diversity in the field showed that the choice of metric has not generally taken into account the link between the metric and the functions of interest, and that vegetation cover has been most widely used, regardless of study purpose. 4. We compared quantitatively in subalpine grasslands three methods for quantification of species abundances plus one taxon-free method. We found that: (i) data base trait values were robust across years for a diverse set of dominant species; (ii) CWM have little sensitivity to method for estimating relative abundances; this sensitivity also depends on traits, for example, seed mass results were less stable than leaf traits and heights; (iii) robust estimates of CWM were obtained from visual estimates of species ranks and biomass using a dry-weight ranking method (BOTANAL), whereas functional divergence was more sensitive to method; and (iv) the taxon-free method should be treated with more caution and performed particularly poorly for estimates of functional divergence. 5. We conclude that methodology can affect estimates of functional diversity. Although care should be taken in the choice of method and interpretation of results, rapid methods often offer promising avenues for sampling larger areas and/or repeated measures.

The Current Status of Breast MR Imaging Part I. Choice of Technique, Image Interpretation, Diagnostic Accuracy, and Transfer to Clinical Practice

Compared with mammography and breast ultrasonography, contrast material-enhanced magnetic resonance (MR) imaging is a breast imaging technique that offers not only information on lesion cross-sectional morphology but also on functional lesion features such as tissue perfusion and enhancement kinetics. After an enthusiastic start to clinical breast MR imaging in the early 1990s, a variety of difficulties and obstacles were identified that hampered the transfer of the modality into clinical practice, including a lack of standardization regarding image acquisition and interpretation guidelines, a lack of MR-compatible interventional materials, and a lack of evidence regarding its diagnostic accuracy--particularly specificity and positive predictive value, as well as sensitivity for ductal carcinoma in situ. This article is the first of two on the current status of breast MR imaging. The pathophysiologic basis of breast MR and the effects on acquisition technique and diagnostic accuracy, the diverging demands of high spatial and temporal resolution, and the different approaches that exist for image acquisition are reviewed. Advantages and disadvantages of different pulse sequence parameters are discussed to help radiologists make a balanced and informed decision regarding choice of image acquisition protocol. Imaging findings in common benign and malignant changes are described, and current concepts for differential diagnosis, including the MR Breast Imaging Reporting and Data System lexicon, are discussed. Furthermore, obstacles that impeded the technique's transfer into clinical practice are discussed, and the progress made in recent years, especially regarding the development of guidelines, procedural standardization, and MR-guided interventions are outlined.

Open‐ended assignments and student responsibility

An inquiry-based laboratory course was created in an effort to increase student responsibility in learning and to improve teaching in areas related to molecular medicine. Authentic medical cases with both scientific and clinical aspects formed the basis of a project-oriented course that also included student laboratory work focused on the disease-related proteins. Students used basic biochemical techniques to develop and test hypotheses relating their results to the clinical findings. The course also included patient demonstrations to personalize students' knowledge of case presentations, lectures on basic biochemical principles relevant to the molecular basis of the cases, and seminars by invited guests with expertise in translational medicine. Students developed proposals for future research as part of the final examination. An inquiry matrix was used to evaluate the degree of learning responsibility taken during the course. By allowing for openness in how to explore the case including choice of methods and interpretation of unexpected results, students gained confidence in their ability to solve problems, formulate and test hypotheses, and collaborate with both clinical and non-clinical professionals.

The Performer as Analyst

This paper presents five recordings of the fourth movement of Chopin’s Piano Sonata in B-flat minor Op. 35. Rather than looking at the performer as an instrument of the analyst, the author demonstrates the way in which the performer’s interpretive choices are themselves analytical. Expanding on work by Joel Lester, the author challenges theorists to consider how performers can both provide answers to our questions but can also, by challenging conventional interpretations, introduce new modes of analytic inquiry.

Some Emendations and Non-Emendations in Beowulf (Verses 600a, 976a, 1585b, 1663b, 1740a, 2525b, 2771a, and 3060a)

J N greater detail than would have been feasible in his edition of Beowulf and The Fight at Finnsburg itself, Frederick Klaeber judiciously set out his views on various textual and interpretive matters in a series of journal articles to which the reader is referred throughout his edition. The following discussion of cruces in Beowulf is thus offered after his example, explaining the reasoning behind certain of the textual and interpretive choices that are most likely to be adopted in the forthcoming revised edition of Klaeber's work.' In most instances, a change to the text is advocated, though in some places reasons to doubt Klaeber's readings are answered and his decisions corroborated. Some of the alterations proposed here are to the text itself, while others are to Klaeber's interpretation of particular words and passages. In some cases, an old solution discarded by Klaeber is advocated; in others, a new solution is proposed. All the problems discussed are of long critical standing.

Contagion in Theology and Law: Ethical Considerations in the Writings of Two 14th Century Scholars of Nasrid Granada

AbstractThe Black Death, which struck al-Andalus in the second half of the 8th/14th century, was an unprecedented natural disaster. In this essay I examine the legal and ethical responses of two Granadan scholars to the social and intellectual challenge posed by this event. Whereas previous scholarship has almost universally lauded the stridently critical stance of the wazir Ibn al-Khatīb as an exceptional example of rational empiricism, I argue that his stance is more productively understood when compared to that of his teacher Ibn Lubb. Both scholars articulated an ethical response to an insurmountable challenge from within a medical and legal framework. Their interpretive choices and conclusions were based not so much on one scholar's privileging of empirical evidence over legal dogma, or vice versa, as they were on both scholars' grounding their respective statements in differing understandings of the nature of the evidence at hand.

Flow Cytometric Methods in the Detection of Neonatal Infection

Bacterial infection remains the main causeof neonatal morbidity and mortality. With clinical signsunspecific and little, its course is fulminant, and onlyearly antibiotic therapy protects from death or major adversesequelae. Methods: Conventional diagnostic testshave shortcomings and are only partly suitable to identifyinfected vs. non-infected newborns. There is a fast increasingdemand for standardized flow cytometric techniquesin the detection of neonatal infection which requireminimal amounts of blood. Target cells are monocytes/macrophages, granulocytes and NK cells. Results:The choice of receptors and interpretation of resultsneed to be done carefully: A variety of receptors are expresseddifferently, basally or upon cytokine-mediatedregulation, in full- or preterm neonates than in adults,and their expression is influenced by perinatal confounders.Examples are HLA-DR, CD80, CD86, CD16,CD32 receptors on monocytes/macrophages. Flow cytometricmeasurement of CD11b and CD64 expression onphagocytes combined with cytokine (IL-6 or IL-8) or C-reactiveprotein measurement in plasma or whole bloodhave turned out to be most sensitive and specific markersfor detecting early- and late-onset bacterial infection.Conclusion: To date, no flow cytometric marker or set ofmarkers is sensitive and specific enough to allow neonatologiststo withhold antibiotic treatment of a sickneonate who is suspected to be infected.

Discovering Australia Through Fiction: French Translators as Aventuriers

The translation into French of referents of Australia and Australianness in fiction necessitates a considerable variety of translational tendencies and interpretive choices. This study focuses on French translations of selected passages and blurbs from Australian fiction set in regional Australia to determine how referents of Australian flora, fauna, landscape and people are translated and interpreted in a non-English speaking cultural system. Guided by concerns for the target readers’ understanding of the text, French translators employ normative strategies and adaptive procedures common to translation to enhance reader orientation. There is, nonetheless, evidence of culture-specific appropriation of the text and systematic manipulation of Australian referents that goes beyond normative solutions. Such appropriation and manipulation stem from a desire to create and foster culture-specific suppositions about Australia consistent with French preoccupations with colonialism, the exotic, exploration and adventure.

Processes of Inclusion, Cultures of Calculation, Structures of Power

The significance of political-economic context for scientific citizenship is argued through an analysis of New Zealand’s Royal Commission on Genetic Modification. My intention is not to provide an account of why the commission came to the decisions it did but to illustrate how the political-economic context and the culture of regulatory science both exacerbate public concerns about unacknowledged uncertainty and commercial influence and make it difficult for those concerns to influence the outcomes of public dialogues. The discursive flexibility of science as alternately predictive and provisional silences concerns about uncertainty, while a further interpretive choice of science as the autonomous activities of individuals unconstrained by political-economic context occludes the nature of concerns about commercial influence. Rather than the increasingly prevalent focus on processes of engagement, I argue that it is essential that researchers in this area attend to how public dialogue is placed in relation to the cultures and structures of regulatory science and neoliberalism.

Pleistocene deglaciation chronology of the Amery Oasis and Radok Lake, northern Prince Charles Mountains, Antarctica

Abstract The East Antarctic Ice Sheet is the largest ice mass on Earth with a capacity to raise global sea level by up to 65 m. As the Lambert Glacier–Amery Ice Shelf drainage system is the largest to reach the coast of Antarctica, quantifying its evolution over the Quaternary is a vital component in developing an understanding of the Antarctic response to future climate change. Here we present a deglaciation chronology based on 10 Be and 26 Al in situ cosmogenic exposure ages of the northern Prince Charles Mountains, which flank the Lambert Glacier–Amery system, and that records the progressive emergence of McLeod Massif and Radok Lake basin from beneath the Mac.Robertson Land lobe of the East Antarctic Ice Sheet. The exposure ages monotonically decrease with both decreasing altitude and increasing proximity to the Amery Ice Shelf at the Antarctic coast. Exposure ages from the crests of McLeod Massif near the edge the Amery Ice Shelf and from Fisher Massif, 75 km further inland, each at ∼1200 m above sea level, are 2.2 ± 0.3 and 1.9 ± 0.2 Ma, respectively, suggesting their continuous exposure above the ice sheet at least since close to the Plio–Pleistocene boundary. An extensive plateau at ∼800 m altitude on McLeod Massif above Battye Glacier records the massif's increased emergence above the ice sheet surface at about between 880 and 930 ka ago indicating 400 m of ice volume reduction in the mid Pleistocene. Correcting these apparent ages for a reasonable choice in erosion rate would extend this event to ∼1.15 Ma — a period identified from Prydz Bay ODP core-1167 when sedimentation composition alters and rates decrease 10-fold. Exposure ages from boulder-mantled erosional surfaces above and beyond the northern end of Radok Lake at 220 m, range from 28 to 121 ka. Independent of choice of model interpretation to explain this age spread, the most recent major reoccupation of Radok Lake by Battye Glacier ice occurred during the last glacial cycle. Moraine ridges at the lower altitude of 70–125 m were deposited during the final withdrawal of Battye Glacier ice from the lake basin between 11 and 20 ka ago. This new chronology indicates that the highest Amery Oasis peaks have not been overridden by the Mac.Robertson Land lobe of the East Antarctic Ice Sheet for at least the past 2 Ma. Since this time we document 3 major periods of regional reduction in ice sheet volume at ∼1.1 Ma, during the last glacial cycle (120 to 30 ka) and through the Last Glacial Maximum (20 to 10 ka) that resulted in an overall 1000 m of ice lowering in the Battye Glacier–Radok Lake region.

Shaw's Epic Theater

Directing is often defined as process of solving problems. Rehearsals must address issues from the mundane, such as crowd control and the movement of sets and props, to the more abstract, such as the playwright's references and themes. Choosing to direct new productions of classic plays presents its own set of challenges or problems to be solved: What fresh insights can this specific director and company bring to this play? What in the play speaks to audiences across periods? At what point do interpretive choices allow the play to be seen anew or obscure the play with the director's desire to provide an original concept? In his 2003 production of Misalliance at the Shaw Festival, director boldly chose to use antirealistic Brechtian techniques. The use of these techniques raised new possibility in staging. In the past, many theater professionals have based their staging of Shaw on mistaken belief that his plays are inherently realistic, leaving productions mired in fourth-wall realism. Here was new option: to take Shaw at his antirealistic word in production choice and, in fact, to present discussion. Misalliance, although it closed after only eleven performances in 1910 and was not revived again until the 1930s, has recently enjoyed very busy and popular life in production. This revival of interest is not surprising considering the play's focus on parents and children, gender roles, and marital choices and its heightened theatricality: characters parachute out of the sky, engage in La Ronde-Mke dance of relationships, and find themselves entangled in sensationalist subplot featuring revenge and decades-old secret. From directing point of view, Misalliance presents several staging issues. The play is approximately 100 pages with no act or scene breaks. Each familiar conflict and plot line is undermined at its inception, disrupting audience expectations. Shaw's own descriptions of the setting are extremely realistic, seeming to discourage experimental or avant-garde approaches. His stage designs, sent for the first New York production, called for hat stand, writing table, worktable, sideboard, rhododendrons, and a distant landscape of fir clad hills.1 Tarleton repeatedly advises the other characters to read authors