Choice Of Diluent Research Articles

Localized High-Concentration Electrolytes with Low-Cost Diluents Compatible with Both Cobalt-Free LiNiO2 Cathode and Lithium-Metal Anode.

High-nickel layered oxide cathodes and lithium-metal anode are promising candidates for next-generation battery systems due to their high energy density. Nevertheless, the instability of the electrode-electrolyte interphase is hindering their practical application. Localized high-concentration electrolytes (LHCEs) present a promising solution for achieving uniform lithium deposition and a stable cathode-electrolyte interphase. However, the limited choice of diluents and their high cost are restricting their implementation. Four novel cost-effective diluents and their performance with highly reactive LiNiO2 cathode and Li-metal anode are reported here. The results show that all the LHCE cells exhibit a Coulombic efficiency of >99.38% in Li | Cu cells and a capacity retention of >85% in Li | LiNiO2 cells after 250 cycles. Advanced characterizations unveil that the stable cell operation is due to well-tuned electrode-electrolyte interphases and Li deposition morphology. In addition, online electrochemical mass spectroscopy and differential scanning calorimetry reveal that the gas generation and heat-release are greatly reduced with the LHCEs presented. Overall, the study provides new insights into the role of diluents in LHCEs and offers valuable guidance for further optimization of LHCEs for high energy density lithium-metal batteries.

Deformability of mouse erythrocytes in different diluents measured using optical tweezers.

Optical tweezers are widely used to measure the mechanical properties of erythrocytes, which is crucial to the study of pathology and clinical diagnosis of disease. During the measurement, the blood sample is diluted and suspended in an exogenous physiological fluid, which may affect the elastic properties of the cells in vitro. Here, we investigate the effect of different diluents on the elastic properties of mouse erythrocytes by quantitatively evaluating their elastic constants using optical tweezers. The diluents are plasma extracted from mouse blood, veterinary blood diluent (V-52D), Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium (DMEM), phosphate-buffered saline (PBS), and normal saline (NS). To create an environment that closely resembles in vivo conditions, the experiment is performed at 36.5 °C. The results show that the spring constant of mouse erythrocytes in plasma is 6.23 ± 0.41 μN m-1. The elasticity of mouse erythrocytes in V-52D and DMEM is 8.21 ± 0.91 and 6.95 ± 0.85 μN m-1, which are higher than that in plasma extracted from blood, whereas, the elasticity in PBS and NS is 4.23 ± 0.85 and 4.68 ± 0.79 μN m-1, which are less than that in plasma extracted from blood. At last, we observe the size and circularity of erythrocytes in different diluents, and consider that the erythrocyte diameter and circularity may affect cell deformability. Our results provide a reference of the diluent choice for measuring the mechanical properties of erythrocytes in vitro.

Non-Fluorinated Diluent Making Localized High-Concentration Electrolyte for Lithium Metal Anode Battery

Localized high-concentration electrolyte (LHCE) has been adopted to derive resilient inorganic-rich solid-electrolyte interphase (SEI) layer for lithium-metal anodes (LMA) and increase the ionic conductivity of high-concentration electrolyte (HCE). While the ideal diluent molecules used in LHCE should be miscible in electrolyte system, it should not solvate lithium-ion effectively. To date, systematic investigation to reveal the design rule of diluent molecules remain poorly investigated. In addition, the choice of diluents is largely limited to fluorinated organic molecules which are expensive and environmentally hazardous and unstable at the reductive potential. Because of poor cathodic stability, fluorinated diluents (FDs) have failed to achieve cycle lives longer than 500 cycles in lithium metal half-cell.Herein, we establish the design rule of diluents for the ideal LHCE, which allows to derive three non-fluorinated diluents (NFDs) systematically. We present that two solvatochromic parameters, HBA basicity (β) and normalized electronic transition energy (ET N), unravel the generalization rule for the lithium-ion solvation capability and miscibility of diluents. Our design rule discovers three NFDs: anisole, ethoxybenzene, and furan. These NFDs have the unique resonance structures which effectively delocalize the oxygen lone pair electrons and thus enhance non-solvating characteristics, confirmed by the β value and the density functional theory (DFT) calculation. In addition, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy studies confirm that our NFDs remains stable and unreacted after long-term cycling. Finally, NFD-containing electrolytes achieve superior cyclability up to 1400 cycles, the record for LHCE to date. The results obtained in this study may pave the way for designing advanced electrolyte for next generation LMA.

Saline versus 5% dextrose in water as a drug diluent for critically ill patients: a retrospective cohort study

BackgroundThe choice of intravenous infusion products for critically ill patients has been studied extensively because it can affect prognosis. However, there has been little research on drug diluents in this context. The purpose of this study is to evaluate the impact of diluent choice (saline or 5% dextrose in water [D5W]) on electrolyte abnormalities, blood glucose control, incidence of acute kidney injury (AKI), and mortality.MethodsThis before-after, two-group comparative, retrospective study enrolled adult patients who stayed for more than 48 h in a general intensive care unit from July 2015 to December 2018. We changed the default diluent for intermittent drug sets in our electronic ordering system from D5W to saline at the end of 2016.ResultsWe included 844 patients: 365 in the D5W period and 479 in the saline period. Drug diluents accounted for 21.4% of the total infusion volume. The incidences of hypernatremia and hyperchloremia were significantly greater in the saline group compared to the D5W group (hypernatremia 27.3% vs. 14.6%, p < 0.001; hyperchloremia 36.9 % vs. 20.4%, p < 0.001). Multivariate analyses confirmed the similar effects (hypernatremia adjusted odds ratio (OR), 2.43; 95% confidence interval (CI), 1.54–3.82; hyperchloremia adjusted OR, 2.09; 95% CI, 1.31–3.34). There was no significant difference in the incidences of hyperglycemia, AKI, and mortality between the two groups.ConclusionsChanging the diluent default from D5W to saline had no effect on blood glucose control and increased the incidences of hypernatremia and hyperchloremia.

Trends in steroid agent and diluent choices for epidural steroid injections: a survey of Spine Intervention Society physicians

BackgroundEpidural steroid injections (ESIs) are a frequently used treatment for refractory radicular spinal pain. ESIs, particularly transforaminal epidural steroid injections (TFESI), may provide pain relief and delay the need for...

Dilution and microfiltration of particulate corticosteroids for spinal epidural injections: impact on drug concentration and agglomerate formation.

Particulate corticosteroids have been described to lead to greater pain improvement compared with their non-particulate counterparts when used in epidural injections. It is hypothesised that filtering may significantly impact their concentration and long-term efficacy. We investigated if passing particulate suspensions through different commonly-used filters affects drug dosage. Two particulate corticosteroid formulations, triamcinolone acetonide and methylprednisolone acetate, were mixed at different concentrations with either bupivacaine hydrochloride or 0.9% sodium chloride. Solutions were passed through a 5-μm and a 0.2-μm filter. Mass spectroscopy results indicated a complete loss of corticosteroid from the solutions using both filters, and light microscopy imaging demonstrated agglomerate formation, suggesting that filtering interferes with drug dosage. The choice of diluents must also be considered to reduce large agglomerate formation. Clinicians should be aware of the consequences of filtering particulate suspensions and carefully consider the selection of diluent when considering treatment plans.

Effect of Diluents on the Autoignition of Propane Mixtures Using a Rapid Compression Machine

The autoignition process of different propane mixtures was studied to determine how the diluent choice (helium and argon/nitrogen) affects the ignition delay, the production of excited radicals, and the overall combustion process. An optically accessible rapid compression machine, high-speed camera, flame spectrometer, and numerical model were used to investigate the combustion process. The ignition delay times were measured at a wide range of compressed gas temperatures from 860 to 950 K, a compressed gas pressure of approximately 34 bar, and two equivalence ratios of 1.0 and 1.5. Chemiluminescence at wavelengths of 309, 555, 590, and 623 nm from the decay of excited radicals was detected during the autoignition process, and their respective intensities were measured and compared at various test conditions. A new kinetic model was built by combining reaction rates of excited radicals and species from the literature. The new model was validated against the measured ignition delay data of this work. The ig...

Functional Assessment of Diluent Choice for Semen Cryopreservation from Stallions with High and Low Freezability

Background: fertility rates using horse frozen-thawed semen remain lower than in other livestock species. This fact further suggests that horse semen hold intrinsic sensitivity to cryoinjury that must be investigated. Moreover, there is a substantial influence of genetic factors and diluent choice upon horse cryopreservation outcome. Collectively, these genetic and technical properties of horse semen could be explored to identify factors or conditions that may increase semen viability after freeze-thawing. The aim of this work was to evaluate the effect of diluents Botu-Crio®,Lactose-EDTA®, and INRA-82® on cryopreserved semen from stallions with high (HFA) and low freezability (LFA).Materials, Methods &amp; Results: frozen-thawed semen was evaluated for motility, membrane integrity, and sperm DNA fragmentation using the thermoresistance test (TRT). Comparisons for each parameter were done in a pair-wise fashion between HFA and LFA semen at one-hour intervals during the TRT (0 h - 4 h). Sperm motility in HFA, regardless of the diluent, was larger (P &lt; 0.05) than LFA, both on 0h and 1h. In the 2h evaluation, sperm motility using Botu-Crio® and Lactose-EDTA® was greater (P &lt; 0.05) for HFA. Analysis of sperm membrane integrity was similar between HFA and LFA semen (P &gt; 0.05) at 0 h and 3 h. Sperm DNA fragmentation was lower (P &lt; 0.05) in HFA semen at 0 h and 1 h. Discussion: frozen-thawed semen from stallions of high freezing ability showed greater motility at all analysis, irrespectively of diluent choice, suggesting a strong influence of genetic factors on cryopreservation outcome. Membrane integrity was similar immediately after thawing but did differ later on other TRT time-points, irrespectively of diluent choice. As observed for motility, it was expected that sperm cells of stallions of HFA would show higher membrane integrity than their LFA counterparts. Sperm DNA fragmentation was quite low for both groups, as described in horses. Surprisingly, sperm DNA fragmentation incidence was constant throughout the analysis for both HFA and LFA. It was initially envisioned that increased DNA fragmentation would be found in semen from LFA stallions, since it is caused by multiple origins such as genetic factors. In conclusion, the semen diluent affects horse sperm motility after thawing, particularly from stallions with lower semen freezability.

Selection of Liquid Membrane Component for Lignosulfonate Removal from Liquid Waste Solution using Emulsion Liquid Membrane Process

Removal of lignosulfonate from pulping process as an external biofuel and in specialty chemicals is growing such as in production of vanillin, animal feed pellets binder, pesticides, ect. Though lignosulfonate(LS) is nontoxic, it imparts brownish black colour to the water bodies and makes them unsuitable for usage in other processes. Therefore the removal and recovery of LS is needed. This study examined the liquid membrane component selection of lignosulfonate(LS) removal from liquid waste solution using trioctylamine (TOA) as a mobile carrier in batch process using mixer settler. Several parameters have been investigated such as choice of diluents, effect of pH, concentration of carrier, concentration of LS solution, organic to aqueous treat ratio, choice of stripping agent and concentration of stripping agent. The results show that at favorable condition of 0.1M concentration of TOA in kerosene, pH 3 of solution, treat ratio 1:15 and 0.7 M NaOH solution as stripping agent showed that almost 90 percent of lignin was extracted and recovered in receiving phase.

Microbial challenge test of a novel epoprostenol sodium formulation.

AimThe aim of the current study was to present a comprehensive display of antimicrobial activity of a novel epoprostenol sodium formulation with respect to seven different microorganisms, two levels of inoculation (102–103 colony forming units [CFU]/mL and 105–106 CFU/mL), two diluents (sterile water for injection [SWI] and sterile saline [sodium chloride 0.9%] for injection [SSI]), two concentrations (3,000 ng/mL and 15,000 ng/mL), and seven different storage time points at two temperatures (up to 10 days at 2°C–8°C and 20°C–25°C).Materials and methodsAntimicrobial activity was evaluated for, 1) solutions at 3,000 ng/mL inoculated with 102–103 CFU/mL and 105–106 CFU/mL; and 2) solutions at 15,000 ng/mL inoculated with 102–103 CFU/mL and 105–106 CFU/mL. All solutions were stored for up to 10 days at 2°C–8°C and 20°C–25°C. Solutions were prepared by reconstitution and further dilution of an epoprostenol sodium formulation using SWI or SSI. Antimicrobial activity was measured after inoculation with seven species of bacteria, yeast, and mold.ResultsFor all solutions, after 10 days, no microbial growth with respect to initial inoculum was observed, with the exception of a few early time points when using SWI as diluent. Some microorganisms died off completely, whereas others remained stable overall or returned to initial levels. Prior to decreasing, some microorganisms displayed a slight initial increase, presumed to be caused by breakup of clusters. Storage temperature had a negligible influence on the results, whereas choice of diluent (SSI or SWI) impacted growth kinetics in that SSI had a greater antimicrobial effect than SWI.ConclusionUpon reconstitution and further dilution of the novel epoprostenol formulation to concentrations of 3,000 ng/mL and 15,000 ng/mL with SWI or SSI, the resulting solutions did not support growth of the tested microorganisms when stored at 2°C–8°C or 20°C–25°C for up to 10 days.

Comparative efficacy of chemical stabilizers on the thermostabilization of a novel live attenuated buffalopox vaccine

In the present investigation, the thermostability of a live attenuated buffalopox vaccine prepared with an indigenous baffalopox virus isolate (BPXV Vij/96) and freeze-dried under conventional lyophilizing conditions is described. Three different stabilizer combinations like LS (lactalbumin hydralysate + sucrose), LHT (lactalbumin hydralysate + Trehalose dihydrate) and TAA (Trehalose dihydrate + l- Alanine + l-Histidine) were used to prepare the vaccine. The study indicated that the LS stabilizer was found to be the stabilizer of choice followed by LHT and TAA for buffalopox vaccine at all temperatures studied. The presence of stabilizers has beneficial influence in preserving the keeping quality of the vaccine. Further, among the diluents used to reconstitute the freeze-dried buffalopox vaccine, double distilled water, 0.85% normal saline solution and phosphate buffer saline were the choice of diluents in that order. However, 1M MgSO4 did not perform well at higher temperatures. Investigation suggests for using LS as a stabilizer for freeze-drying and any of the three diluents except 1MgSO4 for reconstitution of buffalopox vaccine.

Challenges in Analysis of Circulating Extracellular Vesicles in Human Plasma Using Nanotracking and Tunable Resistive Pulse Sensing

Aim: Extracellular vesicles (EV) are secreted from both healthy and diseased tissues and are detectable in most body fluids, where their measurement can be of prognostic/diagnostic value. We aimed to evaluate pre-analytical and analytical variables in the measurement of EV in human plasma using nanotracking analysis (NTA) and tunable resistive pulse sensing (TRPS). Method: Commercial beads (200 nm and 400 nm in diameter) and human plasma from volunteer donors were used in this study. A total of 36 bead and 175 plasma measurements were undertaken by NTA and TRPS. The preand analytical conditions tested on plasma samples were: fresh, stored for 1 day or 1 week at 4°C or -80°C. The other variables included testing of neat or pelleted EVs and choice of diluent. Results: The 200 nm and 400 nm beads, when tested alone or combined showed coefficient of variations (CV) of <10% at all dilutions. The CVs for triplicate results of plasma samples varied between 3-43%, with samples frozen for 1 week showing the least CV spread (5-15%). The EV counts from pellets or supernatants obtained after centrifugation of plasma at 21000 g for 1 h, were different to the neat samples. Although both the supernatant and pellet fractions contained EVs of approximately 100 nm in size, only the pellet contained larger vesicles of 300 nm, and only the supernatant contained vesicles <100 nm.. Different EV counts were obtained for the same plasma aliquot using NTA and TRPS. Conclusions: Measurements by NTA can be performed on fresh and/or frozen samples provided similar storage and centrifugation conditions are used. The CVs for plasma samples are high indicating the need for standardized conditions. TRPS requires at least two different nanopore filters for measurements and plasma as diluent in lower chamber for optimal results. NTA and TRPS measure EVs by different approaches and the knowledge of the size range for measurement by each method is critical.

Formulation factors affecting the isomerization rate of betamethasone-17-valerate in a developmental hydrophilic cream – a HPLC and microscopy based stability study

The formulation of betamethasone-17-valerate (BV) into topical medicines presents a significant challenge for the formulation chemist. The substance is susceptible to acid and base catalyzed isomerization in aqueous environments, which results in valerate transesterification from carbon 17 to carbon 21 of the steroid ring system. This acyl migration process is of significant clinical importance since the 21-valerate ester possesses only a fraction of the potency of the 17-valerate parent compound. Isomerization of BV should therefore be reduced to a minimum through design of a suitable drug vehicle. In this study, the effect of varying the concentration of several excipient components on the isomerization rate of betamethasone valerate in a model hydrophilic cream has been investigated. These excipients include the emulsifier macrogolstearylether-20/21, the co-emulsifier cetylstearyl alcohol and the thickening agent hydroxyl propyl methylcellulose. Additionally, the influence of pH, the presence of the antioxidant, alpha-tocopherol, as well as the chelating agent, disodium edetate, on the stability of the formulation have been investigated. Trial drug product formulations, which were designed to investigate the influence of the above-mentioned components/parameters were manufactured and their stability was tested according to current ICH Guidelines. The content, purity and crystalline structure of the active substance in these formulations was analyzed by a combination of HPLC and microscopy techniques. The study demonstrates that the rate of isomerization of betamethasone valerate depends significantly on the concentration of emulsifier used in the cream formulation. At higher concentrations of emulsifier the isomerization proceeds rapidly with significant degradation over a period of weeks, whereas at lower concentrations significant degradation may not be observed, even after several years’ storage. The influence of the emulsifier has been shown to be independent of the pH value of the aqueous phase of the cream. These findings have not been reported in previous literature reports on this topic, which have tended to focus on the influence of pH. The results are likely to be of interest to pharmaceutical chemists working on the formulation of glucocorticoids as well as to local- and hospital pharmacists who carry out the practice of dilution of proprietary corticoid preparations, where the choice of diluent is likely to be critical for ensuring the stability of the diluted product.

Substrates and epitaxial deposition processes for Group III-nitride thin films and power device heterostructures

Abstract

AN AUDIT OF NEONATAL CONTINUOUS INFUSIONS

AimTo audit the diluents and final concentrations used for selected neonatal continuous intravenous infusions.MethodWe studied standard flow rate infusions of adrenaline, noradrenaline, dopamine, dobutamine, midazolam and morphine. The following audit...

A reinterpretation of C5-BTBP extraction data, performed in various alcohols

The separation of trivalent actinides from trivalent lanthanides present in used nuclear fuel can be achieved by using solvent extraction and the BTBP class of ligands. This separation is relevant for the advanced reprocessing of the used fuel. The choice of diluents in such BTBP based systems has shown to affect the extraction as well as the separation. Long chained alcohols have previously been investigated as such diluents, showing that the americium extraction is higher into alcohols having shorter chains (hexanol, and heptanol) than in longer chained ones (nonanol and decanol). In this work it is shown that not only the distribution ratio, but also the contact time needed before reaching extraction equilibrium is shorter when using shorter chain length of the alcohol diluent. It is also shown that the rate of extraction can be correlated to the interfacial tension between the diluent and the aqueous phase. A low interfacial tension gives a fast extraction while an extraction system with higher interfacial tension needs a longer time of phase contact in order to reach extraction equilibrium.

Study on ultrasonically assisted emulsification and recovery of copper(II) from wastewater using an emulsion liquid membrane process

The aim of this work was to study the emulsification assisted by ultrasonic probe (22.5 kHz) and investigate the removal of copper(II) ions from aqueous solution using water-in-oil-in-water (W/O/W) emulsion liquid membrane process (ELM). The membrane was prepared by dissolving the extractant bis(2-ethylhexyl)phosphoric acid (D2EHPA) and the hydrophobic surfactant sorbitan monooleate (Span 80) in hexane (diluent). The internal phase consisted of an aqueous solution of sulfuric acid. Effects of operating parameters such as emulsification time, ultrasonic power, probe position, stirring speed, carrier (D2EHPA) and surfactant (Span 80) concentrations volume ratios of organic phase to internal striping phase and of external aqueous phase to membrane (W/O) phase, internal phase concentration and choice of diluent on the membrane stability were studied. With ultrasound, the W/O emulsion lifetime were much higher than those reported previously by mechanical agitation. The effect of carrier and Cu(II) initial concentration on the extraction kinetics was also investigated. Nearly all of the Cu(II) ions present in the continuous phase was extracted within a few minutes. Additionally, the influence of H 2SO 4 concentration on the stripping efficiency was examined.

Radiolysis of solvents containing C5-BTBP: identification of degradation products and their dependence on absorbed dose and dose rate

Solvents intended for the separation of trivalent actinides from trivalent lanthanides in spent nuclear fuel have been irradiated with gamma-radiation. The solvents initially contained 0.005 M C5-BTBP dissolved in either hexanol or cyclohexanone and they were exposed to doses up to 20 kGy. Identification of degradation products was done using atmospheric pressure chemical ionization-mass spectrometry (APCI-MS). Structures were suggested for a number of degradation products and the relative intensity of the peaks in the MS spectra was estimated. It was clear that the content of the original molecule, C5-BTBP, decreased with dose, while the content of the various degradation products increased. It was also shown that both the choice of diluent and the dose rate (Gy/h) affect the amount of degradation products formed. A degradation scheme was proposed for the radiolytic degradation of C5-BTBP.

Evaluation of osmolality and pH of various concentrations of methotrexate, cytarabine, and thiotepa prepared in normal saline, sterile water for injection, and lactated Ringer's solution for intrathecal administration

Neurotoxicity of intrathecal (IT) chemotherapy has been variously attributed to the preservatives, volume, osmolality, and pH of the preparations. There has been little evaluation of how different drug concentrations or diluents can affect the osmolality and pH of the final solution. We conducted a three-part study: survey of cancer centers regarding the drug concentrations and diluent used in preparing IT chemotherapy; review of the literature on common practice of preparing IT chemotherapy; evaluation of the pH and osmolality of commonly used chemotherapy preparations for IT. We surveyed selected cancer centers to provide information on their standard volume, drug concentrations, and choice of diluents. MEDLINE was searched for clinical reports using the MeSH terms of 'cytarabine,' 'methotrexate,' or 'thiotepa' with the subheading 'Cerebrospinal fluid' and combined with 'intrathecal' in all database fields. Data retrieved included the choice of diluent, volume, and/or drug concentration. We evaluated the pH and osmolality of methotrexate (1, 2, 5, and 10 mg/mL), cytarabine (2, 5, 10, and 25 mg/mL), and thiotepa (1, 2, and 5 mg/mL) in normal saline, sterile water for injection (SWFI), and lactated Ringer's solution. Nine centers were surveyed (seven in Canada, one in Australia, one in United Kingdom). Most centers used 5 mL of preservative-free normal saline, irrespective of the drug or drug concentration used. Forty-four reports in the literature were reviewed. Most reported 5 mL of preservative-free normal saline. Most information on drug concentrations was provided for methotrexate, with an average concentration of about 1-2.5 mg/ mL. Cytarabine 0.4-20 mg/mL and thiotepa 1 mg/mL were also reported. In our in vitro evaluation, there was a trend of increased pH associated with increasing concentration of methotrexate and cytarabine. There was no apparent impact of thiotepa concentration on the pH values of the final preparations, irrespective of the diluent used. Except for cytarabine 10 and 25 mg/mL, all the tested solutions have pH within 10% of the physiologic range of CSF. There was a concentration-dependent change in osmolality with methotrexate and cytarabine preparations. Osmolality was increased with increased concentrations in all except methotrexate mixed in SWFI and thiotepa mixed in normal saline and lactated Ringer's solution. Except for some thiotepa solutions, all the tested solutions have osmolality within 10% of the physiologic range of CSF. There is limited published literature on the potential impact of diluent and drug concentration on the pH and osmolality of IT chemotherapy preparation. Most cancer centers conventionally prepare IT chemotherapy with 5 mL of preservative diluent normal saline, irrespective of the specific drug or dose used. The conventional practice means that most methotrexate preparations are likely to have comparable pH and osmolality to CSF. In contrast, cytarabine preparations may show significantly higher pH than the CSF, while thiotepa preparations generally have lower osmolality than the CSF.

Extraction of Propionic Acid Using Different Extractants (Tri-n-butylphosphate, Tri-n-octylamine, and Aliquat 336)

Reactive extraction of propionic acid from aqueous solution containing 0.05 to 0.4 kmol/m3 acid using tri-n-butylphosphate (TBP) (organophosphorous compound), tri-n-octylamine (TOA) (tertiary amine), and Aliquat 336 (quaternary amine) as extractants in 1-octanol was studied. The comparison among the different categories of extractants was made. The order of extraction power was found to be TOA > Aliquat 336 > TBP with KE values of 25.67, 3.58, and 2.36 m3/kmol, respectively. The highest value of equilibrium complexation constant (25.67 m3/kmol) and distribution coefficient (14.09) of TOA suggested it to be the best extractant among the three. The greatest support to highest recovery was also due to the choice of diluent for the system. 1-Octanol was an active diluent which provided good solvation of the acid-extractant complexes. In all the extractions (1:1) acid-extractant complexes were formed with loading ratios less than 0.5, except in Aliquat where values higher than 0.5 were also obtained. This led ...